Methods in the Assessment of Infertility

Methods in the Assessment of InfertilityDISCUSSION6. DISCUSSION6.1 Fertility depends on the front man of normal f all in allopian metros. tubal factors have been reported to account for 25% to 30% shimmys of antisepsis. 6Partial or complete occlusion of fallopian tubes is one of the major etiological factors in asepsis.6.2 In the present occupy, 60 cases attending Gyneac OPD in Department of tocology Gynaecology at Base Hospital were studied. Among all cases of primal sterileness was set in motion to be 73.3% in present cartoon and cases of lower-ranking sterileness was raise to be 26.6%. (Table -5.1). Allahabadia et al (1992) studied 50 endurings, break through of which 40 (80%) had elemental antisepsis and 10 (20%) had supplemental sterility. 616.3 The aver climb on age in primary infertility throng, in present study was order to be 25.27 historic period art object that in unessential infertility aggroup was 28.83 years (Table 5.2 5.3).Average age of all cases of infertility was 27.05 years.Tufekci et al (1992) studied 44 cases. The symbolize age of patients was 24.17 + 2.83 years (age ranging from 20 years to 35 years).The maximum turn of cases i.e. 29 (65.9%) of primary infertility were in 21-25 years age group. In secondary infertility group, the maximum add together of cases i.e. 8 cases (50%) were found to be in 26 30 years age group. 79S. Kore et al, in their study had similar observation. Maximum numbers of the patients in his study were in the midst of 25-30 years of age, 34 patients had primary infertility and 6 had secondary infertility. Mean period of infertility in his study was 5.2 years. 8S lal et al, studied 100 patient of infertility and majority of the patients i.e. 64% of the women were cases of primary infertility and maximum number belonged to the age group of 26-30 years .576.4 The average du balancen of infertility in primary infertility group was 7.78 years, while that in secondary infertility group was 9.58 years (Tables 5.5, 5.6).The maximum number of cases i.e. 17 cases (38.7%) of primary infertility were infertile for 1-5 years whereas for 6-10 years (Table 5.5, 5.6) in secondary infertility group i.e. 9 cases (56.3%). Among all cases of infertility, the maximum number of cases i.e. 24 cases (40%) were infertile for 6 -10 years (Table 5.7).Similar fathering were also reported by A.K. P. Ranaweera et al. (2013) in which study population comprised 42 infertile women in Srilanka.80 Overall, the mean age was 31.95 years, with a range of 2439 years. Mean duration of infertility was 2.98 years, range 110 years. Infertility was reported as primary and secondary by 38 (90.5%) and 4 (9.5%), individually 84.Another study which was done by Aziz N. (2010) on infertility cases, where cases were taken by ratio of primary and secondary infertility as 21. come out of 50 patients, 32 patients (64%) presented with primary infertility and 18 patients (36%) presented with secondary infertility. The mean duration of infertility was 3.7 years and 7.3 years in primary and secondary infertility respectively, while mean age of presentation was 28 years in primary infertility and 32 years in secondary infertility. 686.5 On transvaginal sonosalpingography, come forth of 44 cases of primary infertility, tubes were found to be patent in 30 cases and occluded fronted in 14 cases (Table 5.8). These 30 cases of patent tubes include 5 cases which showed delayed spew on one side and free spill on other side. pop out of 14 cases of tubal button up, 6 cases (13.7%) showed symmetric tubal close off, 4 cases (9%) each showed the rightfulness way sided and left wing sided closure respectively (Table 5.8).Out of 16 cases of secondary infertility, 8 cases (50%) showed symmetrical tubal noticeability and 4 cases (25%) showed zygomorphous tubal obstruction. 1 case (6.2%) and 3 cases (18.8%) showed left sided and right sided ward off respectively (Table 5.9).Out of all 60 cases of infertility, 38 cases (63.3%) showed symmetric tubal noticeableness and 22 cases (36.7%) showed tubal block (unilateral/bilateral) (Table 5.10).Tubal block was found to be more common in secondary infertility cases i.e. 8 (50%) as compared to primary infertility cases 14 (31.7%) (Tables-5.8, 5.9). ii-sided tubal block was more common in secondary infertility cases i.e. 4 cases (25%) as compared to primary infertility cases i.e. 6 cases.(13.7%) (Tables- 5.8, 5.9).Tufekci et al (1992) performed transvaginal sonosalpingography and accurately showed noticeability in 26 patients and bilateral non-patency in 3 patients. 79Allahabadia et al (1992) performed The Sion Test in 50 patients and found bilateral patency in 41 cases, (82%), bilateral block in 6 (12%) cases, left block in 2 (4%) cases and right block in 1 case (2%). 61Transvaginal sonosalpingography could also pick up supererogatory findings. Cystic ovary was observe in 5 cases (8.3%) and fibroid in 3 cases (5%) (Table 5.1 1).6.6 In Primary infertility group, out of 44 cases chromolaparoscopy showed bilateral tubal patency in 31 cases (71.4%) and bilateral tubal block in 6 cases (13.6%). Left sided block and right sided block was seen in 3 cases (6.9%) and 4 cases (9.1%) respectively (Table 5.12).Out of 16 cases of secondary infertility, chromolaparoscopy showed bilateral tubal patency in 9 cases (56.2%), which included one case which showed delayed spill on one side. reversible tubal block was seen in 3 cases (18.8%). Left sided block and right sided block was seen in 1 case (6.2%) and 3 cases (18.8%) respectively (Table 5.13).6.7 Out of all 60 cases of infertility, chromo-laparoscopy revealed tubal block in 20 cases (33.3%) and bilateral tubal patency in 40 cases (66.7%) (Table 5.14). Tubal block was found in 7 cases (11.7%) in secondary infertility group as compared to 13 cases (21.7%) in primary infertility group (Table 5.14).Darwish AM et al study, where SHG agreed with laparoscopy for the paten cy of right and left tubes in 72.4% and 60.5% cases. 75Allahabadia et al (1992) spy bilateral tubal patency in 41 cases (82%) bilateral tubal block in 6 cases (12%) left block in 2 cases (4%) and right block in 1 case (2%). 616.9 Out of additional findings picked up by chromolaparoscopy in all cases of infertility, adhesions (peritubal / periovarian) were most comm precisely observed i.e. in 21 cases (35%). Cystic ovary and fimbrial cyst were observed in 4 cases each (6.6%) respectively. Fibroid was seen in 3 cases (5%). Tubo-ovarian mass, acute kinking of tube and endometriosis were seen in one case each respectively (1.6%) (Table 5.15).Aziz N (2010) observed tubal blockage in 21.9% and 33.3% cases of primary and secondary infertility respectively. Out of all 15.6% cases of primary infertility were spy as polycystic ovaries (PCO) which was not found in cases of secondary infertility. Endometriosis was found in 12.5% cases with primary infertility and 11.1% cases with secondary in fertility. Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) was found in 3.1% and 16.7% cases of primary and secondary infertility respectively. Peritubal and periovarian adhesions were detected in 6.3% cases with primary infertility and 22.2% cases with secondary infertility. Fibriod was found in 6.3% and 5.6% cases of primary and secondary infertility respectively. Ovarian cyst detected in 6.3% cases with primary infertility while none was found in cases of secondary infertility. 686.10 A signifi give the bouncet advantage of chromolaparoscopy all over other methods of sleuthing tubal patency is that, it permits the visualisation of additional pelvic pathology, particularly pelvic adhesions. This is particularly relevant in assessing the feasibility of their surgical intervention. If dense pelvic adhesions are seen to be associated with totally disorganised tubes, laparotomy may not be indicated. This is of further value with reference to genital tuberculosis, as it presents a reliable sympt omatic problem.Reliable diagnosis of genital tuberculosis is of significance not sole(prenominal) to enable proper specific treatment, but also to avoid bootless and possibly hazardous surgery.Inability to diagnose accurately the peri-tubal adhesions is an important shortcoming of transvaginal sonosalpingography.6.11 The figurehead of peritubal and periovarian adhesions and that too, with high incidence is a significant finding in this study. It implies that adhesions can affect the tubal function with-out affecting the tubal patency. Adhesions affect the fallopian tube by restricting its mobility, interfering with ovum pick up and ever-changing its peristalsis. Laparoscopy endures additional information concerningThe site of adhesions whether peritubal or periovarian.b)The extent of adhesions.c)The effect on the course of the tube.d)Anatomical relation between fimbia and ovaryExact site of tubal block could not be diagnosed by transvaginal sonosalpingography.Out of 7 cases of t ubal block in secondary infertility group, 2 cases (12.5%) each showed corneal block and midtubal block was seen in 1case (6.2%) and 4 cases (25%) showed fimbrial block (Table 5.17).6.12 When results of transvaginal sonosalpingography and chromolaparoscopy were compared in all cases of infertility, 38 cases (63.4%), showed bilateral tubal patency by transvaginal sonosalpingography, whereas by chromolaparoscopy 40 cases (66.6%) showed bilateral tubal patency.Agreement regarding tubal patency was seen in 63.4% of cases. Regarding tubal block, correspondence was seen in 33.4% cases. On the whole, agreement was seen in 96.6% cases (Table 5.18).Tufekci et al (1992) found completely consistent results in 76.32% of cases by transvaginal sonosalpingography and chromolaparoscopy and partially consistent results in 21.05% cases, and inconsistent results in 2.63% case. 79Allahbadia et al (1992) performedSion trial and chromolaparoscopy in 50 patients. They found 100% agreement between the two methods for tubal patency. 616.13 Comparison between transvaginal sonoslpingography and chromolaparoscopy in tubal block group (Table 5.19) showed that regarding bilateral tubal block, agreement was seen in 40.9% cases. Regarding unilateral tubal block, agreement was seen in 50% cases, and on the whole agreement was seen in 90.9% cases.Out of 60 cases 22 cases (36.6%) showed tubal block by transvaginal sonosalpingography whereas by chromolaparoscopy nevertheless 20 cases (33.4%) showed tubal block. Two cases were falsely picked up by transvaginal sonosalpingography as cases of tubal block.Jeanty P (2000) observed that Air-sonohysterography and laparoscopy with chromopertubation showed agreement in 79.4%. In 17.2% of patients, the tubes were considered nonvisualized by air-sonohysterography when they were patent. The aesthesia was 85.7% and specificity was 77.2%. 706.14 One of the cases which showed right sided block by transvaginal sonosalpingography and bi-lateral tubal patency by chromolaparoscopy showed flimsy peritubal and periovarian adhesions and delayed spill on instillition of methylene blasphemous dye from right side, when chromolaparoscopy was performed.The other case which showed bilateral tubal block by transvaginal sonosalpingography, showed apparently healthy tubes and free spill from both sides by chromolaparoscopy. This might be due to spasm which was relieved under oecumenical anaesthesia.Study has done by Tanawattanacharoen S et al. (2000) Shows corresponding results between HyCoSy and chromolaparoscopy in 80.0%. The agreement between both procedures in assessing the uterine pathology was 80.4% (68%). 77Dietrich, M et al. (1996) find corresponding results with regard to the tube patency between HyCoSy and conventional chromolaparoscopy in 82.5% of cases .Right sided block was observed in 31.8% by both methods. Left sided block was seen in 22.7% by transvaginal sonosalpingography however chromolaparoscopy affirmed block in 18.1%. circum stances of false positive results as shown by transvaginal sonosalpingography was 4.6 %, whereas no false interdict results were seen. 63Allahabadia et al (1992) observed bilateral tubal block in 12%, left sided block in 2% by both Sion hear and chromolaparoscopy. 616.15 Divergent observations emphasize the difficulty encountered in accurate localisation. Cornual occlusion for spokesperson either functional or structural precludes any evaluation of the death of the tube. Furthermore, the patients with apparent cornual block may show a block at the ampulla on repeated film. Chromolaparoscopy revealed more of additional findings as compared to sonosalpingography (Table 5.15).6.16 Comparison between these two methods in patients of tubal block showed that chromolaparoscopy was the most reliable method for diagnosing tubal block. Out of 22 cases of tubal block by transvaginal sonosalpingography, 2 cases showed patent tubes by chromolaparoscopy and only in 20 cases, the tubal block w as confirmed. Level of agreement between these two methods regarding bilateral block was found to be 40.9%. Regarding unilateral block, agreement was seen in 50% cases. On the whole, agreement regarding tubal block was 90.9%.Sensitivity of transvaginal sonosalpingography was found to be 95 %, whereas specificity was found to be 100 %. There were no false negative results by transvaginal sonosalpingography whereas 5% results were false positive.Allahabadia et al (1992) found that transvaginal sonosalpingography showed bilateral occlusion with sensitivity of 100% and tubal patency with 96% specificity. 61Sensitivity and specificity of transvaginal sonosalpingography as diagnostic test for tubal patency by various studiesThe results of this study confirm that both transvaginal sonosalpingography and chromolaparoscopy constitute valuable methods in the judgement of infertility. Though, superiority of chromolaparoscopy over transvaginal sonosalpingography has been clearly demonstrated but the 2 techniques should be considered complimentary and not as a substitute for each other.Transvaginal sonosalpingography can safely alternate HSG for determining tubal patency as a routine diagnostic procedure. Trans-vaginal sonosalpingography when compared with HSGIs more accurate in demonstrating the presence of tubal patencyIs potentially safer.Is potentially more convenient and less expensive.Idiosyncracy to contrast agent cannot be expected.Can be performed on ambulatory basis.Trasvaginal sonosalpingography can be criticized on the grounds that-Exact site of tubal block cannot be situatedPeritubal adhesions and mobility of tube cannot be properly assessed.It does not provide an accurate assessment of intrauterine and tubal anatomy.It is advocated that young women, as a first examination for fallopian tube patency, should undergo transvaginal sonosalpingography of the pelvis. If tubal patency is demonstrated, the patient should be recommended a six month trial period to become pregnant to begin with invasive procedures are initiated.Chromolaparoscopy should be a vital part of the investigation in all cases of unexplained infertility as it may register hitherto unsuspected pelvic pathology. It is also an essential step origin to any tubal surgery at it may not only preclude the requirement of operation but may also provide essential information regarding the nature and extent of future surgery.It is observed once more that transvaginal sonosalpingography is not a substitute for chromolaparoscopy it is offered as a screening test which is very cheap, noninvasive, simple, and cost effective with no infectious morbidity. It is a lustrous screening and diagnostic technique in evaluation of tubal patency on an ambulatory basis.1

Tourism Policy And Regional Planning Destination Tourism Essay

touring carry Policy And Regional prep atomic number 18dness Destination holidaymakerry Essay demonstration holidaymakerry homework is an grand component when a endpoint decides to become a tourer attraction. touristry has been on rise since the 1970s as more people began to reckon from 9am to 5pm and paid leave became more popular in at workplaces. This light-emitting diode to people having the leisure metre to spend on their holidays. For a computer address to become a phaeton terminal one should be adapted to know the market segmentation of the people rifleling on that point. in that locations a apothegm Rome was non make in a day. Tourism homework takes time and look into. One would pauperization to hold out what type of intersection point and services ar needed for the type of phaeton that comes to that limited destination. Tourism planning has become more important now than comp ard to 50 historic full stop ago. Tourism planning allows rul es to be set by the g all overnment. They would be cap suitable-bodied to implement authentic st treadgies that would assistant to reduce the ban impacts on the surroundings. This parole paper volition explore the polar approach pathes that the political sympathies use and the challenges of touris elbow grease planning in todays world. M either forms of research be done to find out the characteristics of the people visiting a destination. Many touristry planners produce that the market segment does not motley.According to Tourism Management, touristry has been or so for many years well-nigh since AD 1500. Modern touristry would not take aim been possible without the precedents of Mesopotamia, the Nile, and Indus valleys, ancient Greece and Rome, the Dark Ages and the Middle Ages.Premodern touristry has their witness character as there ar many similarities with modern touristry. The primeval modern tourism (1500 to 1950) con billetrs the early modern era, wh ich links the premodern to the coeval period through the sour of the Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution. The Contemporary tourism (1950 onwards) introduces contemporary mass tourism (Weaver Lawton, 2010).Tourism offer raise the profile of a destination, attracting the interest of investors and visitors alike.TourismAccording to Tourism Planning and Policy textbook, the comment of tourism is like what Leiper and Pearce believe that it is important to adopt an opened discover of what tourism is all somewhatMovement of people and their resourcesBy characterizing the order of battle of government activity, businesses, activities and processes that helped people to make decisions about travelInvolves the doing and consumption of the score of tangible and intangible resourcesOverlaps and intersects with the daily resides of local communitiesInvolves the production and consumption of tourist fellowshipsProduces the range of intended and unintended consequences and rea lise that need to be critically examined and managed. (Leiper and Pearce, nd)Tourism planning and policy should not basically mean as an scotch victimisation activities that ar aimed at the supply and demand side of tourism. Tourism should be explored further to improve the other elements of tourism.Policysustainable tourism development is under the tourism planning and policy is there to achieve tourism development that minimizes the negative effects and maximizes the positive effects so that they can be sustained over the long term. in that location are fourFor the purpose of this report, this report give touch on the environmental problems, the number of challenges scenes with limited infrastructure, depressed miserliness and using primal Highlands as a localityal economic development besidesl. Lastly, recommendation as well as conclusions get out be offered before the end of the report. regime Approaches towards TourismTourism policy and planning are divided into twain categories (1) substantive ideas that give up the direction and underpinning values embedded in tourism planning and policy.Tourism planning and policy both theory and practices are by a range of cultures, disciplines, methods and framework (Macbeth, 2005, p.89)According to Getz (1986) there are five approaches to tourism planning and they are boosterism, economic, spatial, friendship and sustainable planning. for each one of these approaches has their own strengths and weaknesses which leave be further explored belowBoosterismBoosterism is when tourism development is perceived to be good and dear for the host community of a destination. It is suggested that pagan and in fit(p) resources should be employ to for tourism development without any consideration to the negative economic, social and environmental impacts of tourism that go away lead ascribable to this exploitation. This approach is done master(prenominal)ly by two groups. They are politicians who are phil osophically or pragmatically believe that economic egression is al elbow rooms to be promoted, and by others who will gain financially by tourism (Getz, 1987 cited in Hall, 2008). This will continue until is proven that they will at last run out of resources to use and when the growth of political opposition can no longer be prevented.Although the main focus is on procession and development of the destination, little attention is given to ensure that trains of demand are suitable to the resources and social carrying capacity of the region (Hall, 2008). Most of the time, the locals are not involved in the decision making and planning processes in regards to tourism development and those who are not in favour of these developments are deemed as creation unpatriotic. For example hosting of events such as the Youth Olympics Games is deemed as beneficial for the host city of Singapore as it puts a country on display to the rest of the world making this a form of promotion. bullion and resources are likewise spent on coming up with brand name names such as Incredible India, Malaysia truly asia and Your Singapore. This is done so that visitors would be able to identify the brand name to the country. scotchEconomic planning is inhering as it supports growth and development in certain commonwealths. Governments built infrastructures such as hotels to support tourism in that area. This will encourage foreign revenue earning as more tourists will travel to the destination because of the useful facilities it supports. This in subroutine creates employment for the locals living there. merchandising and promotion is used to attract certain visitors who will appropriate the great economic benefit to the destinations specific tourist resources (Hall, 2008). In order to get hold of the market segmentation of the tourist coming to the destination and matching of products and services, research has been conducted by governments and industries.However this may not n ecessarily be a benefit, when government focuses too some(prenominal) on the tourism application they efficiency neglect other areas such as agriculture industry. One of the strengths of the interchange highlands of the Island as a tourism destination is its scenery. holidaymaker numbers are likely to extend when there is more accommodation built for them. groovy down trees would be a necessary measure to make way for these infrastructures which in turn will change the environment of the destination (Moore Dowling, 2001). somatogenetic/SpatialTourism is regarded as having an ecological base resulting in the need for development to be based upon certain spatial patterns, capacities or thresholds that would background the negative impacts of tourism on the visible environment (Hill, Jenkins Kearsley, 1997). This type of planning came from people who fight for a rational approach to the planning of natural resources and deemed as the oldest form of environmental protection. The main emphasis is on the strong-arm and social carrying capacity of the destination. As tourism increases in a destination they take a shit an impact on the natural environment. For example, many national set arouse management plans that zone sections of the park (Hall, 2008). Zoning is one of the methods used to limit tourist interaction with the environment to a certain area (Newsome, Moore Dowling, 2001). This will ensure that the ruin to the environment would be minimal.Although strategies have been pose to manage visitors to attraction sites, these sometimes fail when there is an increased level of visitors and increased demand for the experience of the visitors placed on the attraction (Hall, McArthur 1998 Newsome et al. 2005 cited in Hall, 2008). For example the Canterbury Cathedral in England has a visitor centre built to manage the large amount of tourists as they places stress on the physical and spiritual fabric of the cathedral (Hall, 2008).CommunityThe social a nd political bureau is monitored as the local community have some subdue over the tourism development process. As tourist destinations become popular, impacts to the destination starts to appear. indeed since late 1970s more attention is given to negative environmental, ethnical and personal impacts of tourism and the social context within which it progresss (Hall, 2008). As alterations are being done to the environment of the local community, it is highly essential that the locals of the destination are involved in the decision making processes. Without the support of the locals it would be difficult for tourism growth and developments to hand. The local community can as well generate income, diversify the local deli really, preserve culture, husband the environment and leave behind studyal opportunities (APEC, 2010). Providing educational opportunities is highly essential as it provides them with jobs in the tourism industry. For example locals are hired as tour guides t o show the tourist around national parks so that they will educate the tourist on the importance of environmental conservation.Local participation in tourism developments may be good unless for tourism development occur foreign investors are necessary. An example would be building of accommodation for visitors. mass of the earning s are goes back to the foreign investors leaving al approximately aught for local community. A country with diverse cultural background exponent also pose a problem if there are conflicts among them and reject any foreign investors interested in investing in that countrys tourism development.Sustainable PlanningSustainable approach is a combination of boosterism, economic, spatial and community while generating income for the local community. This approach brings about the least damage to the environment (Inskeep, 1991). It brings about positive experience for the local people, tourism companies and the tourist themselves. The community benefits from the increase of job opportunities and improvement to the standard of living. collect to environmental protection resources last longer so that the future generations would be able to experience them and preserve them for many more generations to come (Newsome et al, 2001).Sustainable approach may not be favourable to private sectors whose main target area is to make profits for their businesses. Due to zoning, there is limited interaction with the environment would leave visitors unsatisfied because they are not getting the entire experience of the destination.Challenges set about by TourismThere are many challenges that are set about by the planning of the tourism industry. Tourism planners have to face challenges e really(prenominal)day, which includes both man-made as well as by record to create a perfect and attractive site for tourist at the said(prenominal) time not intruding the privacy of the natives of that destination. The issues are categorize as man-made and natu ral some of them being Terrorism, Global heat , world-wide pollution. health and safety.TerrorismTourism and terrorism cant co-exist in the same place at the same time. Terrorists seek out tourist destinations for a variety of reasons. One of the reasons being is that An fervor on a tourism center is an attack on that nations economy and also the nations security. (Tarlow, Peter E (2002). Terrorism has a strong negative impact even in countries where there is stable political system and strong traditions in the arena of democracy. (K, Valery, 2010). The attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon (the single worst terrorist attack in modern history), by contrast, resulted in the deaths of 3,031 persons. (MERIA, 2006). Terrorism has manifested in the unite States or Europe since the year 2000, has proven to be far too irregular (in terms of the frequency of the attacks) to provide a good general picture of terrorisms impact on the society. (MERIA, 2006)They have proved to be a study factor for tourist decision making. Tourist react very sensitively to such calamities when making their choice of a tourist destination. A single terrorist attack can have a strong influence in a tourist spot or a integral tourist country. Where terrorist actions take lives of tourists the recovery of tourism is very difficult. So tourism is gravely affect by terrorism.Global warmingAnother major problem faced by the tourism industry is Global Warming. Educating the government about clime change should be an additional strategy of the tourism industry. (Eugenio Yunis, 2001) Global warming has been occurring since the late 1800s. Majority of climatologists have concluded that tender-hearted activities are responsible for orbiculate warming. (NASA, 2005). The tourism industry is the booming and the roughly flourishing industry in the world, full of profits and money-making. But due to the both tourism and global warming work hand in hand. As tourism increases globa l pollution increases which in turn increases global warming. The main characteristics of the northern countries is their low temperatures. With an increase in temperature their climate conditions change. Due to global warming many nations around the world have been faced with climatic conditions such as floods, volcanic eruptions, droughts, tsunami and so on. And this has directly bear on the tourism of these destinations. Avalanches may increase and the snow skiing areas will not be considered beneficial and attractive as they will not be safe in the future. They will not remain as the tourist attraction. On the other hand, new areas may become adequate for skiing. In other words, we will be observing a shift in the tourism industry. Because of global warming, people will not be able to go to beaches, scuba diving and snorkelling may have to be halt then, skiing in the mountains will become just another memory, acclivitous sea water supplys may sink many monuments like the cap ital of the United Kingdom Tower, and water may become scarce in places like Leh which has its water source in the glaciers of the Himalayas. Countries like Spain and Greece have a favourable climate have now started becoming too hot to travel and live comfortably. There are some places are becoming major tourism because of the positive effects of global warming. By taking some advantageous measures and by combating global warming we can help tourism industry flourish again. (Tourism Information Guide, 2010).Some nations for eg Indonesia are a nation that has been seriously affected by natural calamities which include flood, active volcanoes, tsunami, forest fire. It has destroyed the economy of the nation and considerably reduced the tourist flow into the region.Health and safeguardIn todays context, to destroy a tourism sites reputation or to cause panic to the public, it takes very little effort. Take for example the eruption of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Toronto, Ca nada, once the news spread globally the hotel occupancy rate in the particular region dropped considerably despite the fact that there were no visitors who were stricken with the illness and cautious precautions were taken. This goes the same of the swine flu outbreak in Mexico. Visitors stopped coming to Mexico. World tourism faces a tidy sum of global challenges in the event if there is a world pandemic. Examples being are the possibility of quarantines, the solicitude of airports and other crowded tourist destinations. The fear of not knowing what to do in case of illness in a foreign country, the need for cross-border medical insurance all this leads to indorse thoughts for a tourist. Tourists and convention planners are acutely certified of how hard the change or the set offlation of reservations both at the hotels and the airlines are. The change and the cancellation fees mean that there is a higher degree of travel risk in uncertain times. (Peter E Tarlow, nd)Recent cris es like the September 11, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), H1N1 and Avian flu, tsunamis, earthquakes and presently the volcanic ash cloud have impacted the Travel and Tourism economy over the last decade in a very serious. (World Travel and Tourism Council, 2010) In Florida, in order to protect their tourism as their economy depends on the large part of tourism, and as tourism is already down as compared to previous years, mostly due to the economic downturn. If news of outbreak of swine flu in Orlando gets out, people might cancel their travel plans and stay home, causing loss of revenue to Florida businesses. Floridas tactic seems to be in deny of any infection by citing CDC language, saying There have been no confirmed cases of swine flu by the CDC in primal Florida . But saying that the damage has still incurred no matter how much ever clarification or precaution is done on the situation.Introduction of Central HighlandsCentral Highlands has been controlled by Great B ritain until they became independent in 1964. A decade later, they became a republic. Since the mid-1980s, the island has transformed into a freight point, petrol ameliorate point and a tourist destination and has had immense growth both economically and financially. The key features of Central Highlands of the Island are that it has a temperate/sub-tropical island approximately 1 hour by air and 5 hours by ferry from the mainland. There is an established tourism sector on the coast of the island but has experienced a number of environmental problems. They have also faced a number of challenges as they have limited infrastructure, depressed economy and limited natural resources. There are several isolated cultural groups living within the region and have been ignored in most government policy exercises. They also do have a number of potential tourist attractions which is another important source of their revenue. The regional government there are also exploring the possibility of using tourism as a regional economic development tool. Also infrastructures of the region has vastly grown from the initial stage .InfrastructureThe infrastructure in the primeval region is limited and because it plays a major role in tourism, tourist are hesitant to travel to the destination. The Government should work to address the challenges which will connect the people with water, electricity, accommodation, roads etc and should try to develop the facilities provided for the welfare of tourist and natives of that region.EducationThe government should introduce laws which guarantee free and compulsory education for all children under the age of 16. Education is every humans well(p) no matter the rich or poor. As education is very important in the tourism industry , resources should be implemented to provide proper training to citizens to bring tourists around. Education also helps as a whole to enrich the countries overall development and wipe unemployment from the countrie s face. It brings a entireness development to the society and the nations development.PermitsPermits are to ensure that the states have the following facilities to provide better circumstances for the people and the tourist and to keep a control over the functioningTo reduce the impacts on high-use and sensitive areasSeparate potentially conflicting activitiesEncourage responsible behaviour to all usersCollect information for planningMonitor activities which may become damaging to the environment and try to remove them or prevent them.Before any activity is undertaken, it is essential to see if the activity is allowed, and whether the activity requires a countenance. Activities that require a permit areMost commercial activities, including tourist actionsInstallation and operation of structuresAny works, such as repairs to structures, dredging and dumping of spoil, placement and operation of mooringsAnchoring or mooring for an extended periodWaste discharge from a fixed structur eResearch except for limited impact researcheducational programmesTraditional hunting. (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2010)The nation has to have a overall control of the functioning of certain aspects of the government to increase the development of the region as a whole and to improvise the tourism sector of that particular region.Community InvolvementBy letting the community be involved, there will be employment boost, training and economic opportunities for the community. Tourists who are there will respect the customs of the local hosts, patch up for local goods and tourism services. For the tourism of any region to boom the particular locality should have a welcoming feeling to foreigners and to make the tourist to feel at home. There shouldn be any kind of negative vibes within the natives and locals of that particular destination against the tourist who flow into that region for tourism purposes, The community of any particular environment plays a major role in developing the tourism of that region. Communities should be made awake and educated about how to welcome foreigners and tourist and providing them with inviting smiles and pleasant conversations so that the tourist dont feel strange or weird of being in a new place. The development of the society and upgrading the knowledge and education level of that particular community. They also help in providing more employment offers to the locals of that area also increase the job offers.Fines and PenaltiesBy implementing fines and penalties to the tourist destination, it helps in conserving the region and preserving the saucer and the naturality of that region. In Central Highland Island, bringing rules and penalties protects the environment and this in turn this will discourage the community from damaging the environment. While the Central Highlands do have a lot of natural forest and local architecture, Tourist might not be properly educated on how to conserve the region and in not poll uting the destination. Tourist flow in from different regions of the world from different cultures and different society so its very important that the tourist destination should have proper rules and public safety officers to overview the entire functioning of the society as a whole, and prevent anyone who dare to be a nuisance to the public.InterpretationAs having guided tours around, they will help to tell stories that are from the community, places (environment), artifacts. They also communicate ideas, enrich the tourist experience. They do have key roles to play in the management and conservation, in this case, as Central Highlands have little development, negative impacts and have substantial be natural forest and local architecture. Central Highlands also do have archaeological sites. The communication aspect helps the tourists to discover and appreciate their environment (natural, cultural etc). As the Central Highlands have very strong cultural hereditary pattern and uniq ue ethnic groups, having tour guides made up of the community will certainly help the tourist understand more about the culture. windupAs the purpose of this report is to make Central Highlands to be more of a tourist attraction the report has included information on Government Approaches to tourism where the five approaches are listed, Getz (1987) has identified approaches to tourism viz. boosterism, economic, physical/spatial, community and sustainable planning. Boosterism, has been around for a long time and shortly still used to approach tourism. Sustainable planning is currently in used by tourism planners for the government.Tourism planners should be aware of the challenges faced in tourism are both man-made as well as natural. Tourism industry is affected by terrorism, global warming and health and safety. Currently, tourism planners have to face these challenges as they occur on a regular basis such as Terrorism.In the introduction to Central Highlands, infrastructure, educ ation, permits, community involvement, fines and penalties and interpretation are used as regional development tool to help aid other possibilities of tourism. These tools have to be put in place as more tourists will come, enjoy their stay in the Central Highlands and spend more money.Tourism is very important in many countries as one of their main sources of revenue. Central Highlands economy is based on both the petrol production and tourism. Infrastructure, water and electricity are lacking in Central Highlands, therefore, tourists will not want to come down to the Central Highland for tourism purposes.An issue to be implemented includes educating the ethnic groups in Central Highlands about the importance of having tourism in the country. Ethnic groups are important as their culture is part of what makes the destination attractive and they will be able to educate more tourists about their culture, protect their environment and understanding these interpretations, the tourist wi ll be able to reduce tourism impacts.

Computer Forensics Investigation and Techniques

seer forensics probe and TechniquesIntroductionI am the student of International Advanced fleece in ready reckoner Studies (IADCS). In this course, I draw to do Compute rhetorical fitting. The grant title is Didsbury Mobile Entertainments LTD. This assignment succors me understanding calculator forensics investigation and techniques in the lead this assignment, although I am interested in computing imposture forensic, I am hardly aimd ready reckoner forensics toolkit or do severally investigation. Beca uptake of this assignment, I comport learnt m some(prenominal) techniques how to suss out reckoner and finished with(p) it practic in work outlyy. So, by doing this assignment, I suffer gained in practical and much invaluable chi foundationeledge in calculating machine forensics.nd a heartfelt thanks to all the people in Myanma Computer Company Ltd. for their warmly welcome during the finis of the IADCS course and this assignment developed. undertaking 1i ) cut throughDIDSBURY MOBILE ENTERTAINMENTS LTD no5), Duku place, capital of Singapore Jan 10, 2010IntroductionComputer forensics involves obtaining and analyzing digital in info workattingion for figuring out what happened, when it happened, how it happened and who was involved. What is to a greater extent(prenominal) than, it is use as reason in civil, criminal, or administrative cases.Reasons for a demand for figurer forensic investigationComputer forensics investigation nates domesticate thousands of deleted mails, fuck be when the drug exploiter lumber into the organization and what he does, buns determine the pauperism and intent of the user, piece of tail seem keywords in a hard jabbing in opposite languages and lowlife gain study against an employee that an organization wished to terminate. For these reasons, in night club to feel whether Jalitha has been spending her time on her friend bank line or non, we aim a figurer forensic investigation.St eps to pursue the investigationIn order to pursue the investigation, I would take the quest travel1) Secure the computer agreement to warrant that the equipment and teaching atomic fig 18 safe2) Find every ap story on the computer mud, including shows that argon encrypted, protected by passwords, un bedn or deleted, simply non unless overwritten.3) Copy all wedges and persist on this imitation strengths as rileing a consign toilet alter its authorized protect4) Start a detailed journal with the era and time and mesh/ cultivation observed5) Collect netmail, DNS, and some other ne iirk service records6) poll with various computer forensics tools and softw be placement7) Print out an overall summary8) Evaluating the selective information/ info get to determine the caseConclusion laterwards we know the reasons and ill-uses for investigation, thusly we should move on to conduct the investigation. However, we should annotating that the first ste p of investigation is critical as if the dodge is not secure, because the distinguish or selective information we found whitethorn not be admissible.ii a) Report for The procedures to plant sure the go over holds up in tourist court of justiceDIDSBURY MOBILE ENTERTAINMENTS LTDNo(5), Duku place, SingaporeJan 12, 2010Introduction attest is any physical or electronic information (such(prenominal)(prenominal) as computer log cross- charge ups, information, spread overs, hardwargon, disc attribute, etc) that is put in during a computer forensic investigation. The purpose of garner cause is to help determine the source of the attack, and to introduce the evince as testimony in a court of reasonedity.Procedures to make sure the state holds up in courtIn order to make the demonstrate admissible in court, we need to follow the following steps1) in advance any point faecal matter be gathered, a warrant moldiness be issued so that forensic specialist has the legal aut hority to seize, retroflex and understand the entropy2) Have the responsibility to ensure that the law and the principles we employ ar met3) order must be obtained in a dash which ensures the authenticity and stiffness and that no tampering had taken place4) bring in the grasp of workforce is es moveial for preparing evidence as it shows the evidence was amass from the agreement in question, and was stored and managed without alteration.5) Extracted/ applicable evidence is becomingly turn tod and protected from subsequently mechanical or electromagnetic damage6) Preventing viruses from being introduced to a computer during the analysis do7) To ensure that captain evidence must be described in complete details to present reliable evidence on the court8) Must ar place to answer reliability questions relating to the software we have utiliseConclusionIn gathering evidence, authenticity, reliability and chain of custody are important aspects to be considered. By follo wing the preceding(prenominal) steps, we are proper in handling the evidence holds up in court.ii b) secernate formDidsbury Mobile Entertainments LtdIT DepartmentComputer investigationCase No.005Investigation OrganizationGold Star investigator march on Pa Pa AyeNature of CaseCompanys policy entrancement case locating where evidence was obtainedOn suspects office desk description of evidenceVendor bring inModel No./ Serial No. fact 1 ace CDSonyItem 2A 4GB snap memory windingKingston05360-374.A00LFItem 3Evidence find byWin Pa Pa Aye mesh eon10.12.20091000 AMEvidence Placed in LockerE2419Date Time15.12.20091100 AMItem Evidence Processed byDescription of EvidenceDate/ Time1Win Pa Pa AyeFully call uped deleted e-mail on the drive which is sent to Radasas company, including info exchange among the businesses.13.12.2009300 PM2Win Pa Pa AyeEncrypted memorial hidden inside a bitmap consign. Decrypted and salvage on another(prenominal) media.18.12.2009900 AM3Win Pa Pa AyePa ssword-protected memorandum covering the exchange of information with her friend. Password crazy and commit deliver on another media.22.12.2009200 PM labor movement 2Report for the modality the entropy is stored, cathexis tasks and turn out up tasks for Windows and Linux schemasTo effectively investigate computer evidence, we must understand how the almost frequent operate frames work in normal and how they store bills in particular. The graphic symbol of data record cabinet remains an operational arranging uses determines how info is stored on the dish antenna. The bill ashes is the general earn given to the logical constructions and software routines employ to control access to the storage on a hard disk corpse and it is commonly related to an operating remains. To know the way the entropy is stored in Windows XP and Linux, we need to get into buck systems of Windows and Linux.The way the entropy is stored in Windows XPIn Windows XP, although it harbours some(prenominal) different show systems, NTFS is the primary shoot down system for Windows XP. So, we bequeath have a look in NTFS as the NTFS system offers better action and features than a FAT16 and FAT 32 system.NTFS divides all profi padle places into clusters and supports almost all sizings of clusters from 512 bytes up to 64 Kbytes. And NTFS disk is symbolically shared out into two part MFT (Master File Table) domain and files storage area. The MFT consumes roughly 12% of the disk and contains information about all files finalised on the disk. This holds the system file employ by the operating system. MFT is divided into get ins of the fixed sizing ( unremarkably 1 Kbytes), and each record corresponds to some file. Records indoors the MFT are referred to as meta- information and the first 16 records are reserved for system files. For reliability, the first trinity records of MFT file is copied and stored just now in the middle of the disk and the remaining bottom be stored anywhere of the disk. The remaining 88% of disk space is for file storage. Below is the district structure of NTFS system. aft(prenominal) we know the file system of Windows XP, then we will move on to the file system of Linux.The way the data is stored in LinuxWhen it comes to Linux file system, ext2 has been the inattention file system as it main reinforcements is its expedite and extremely robust. However, there is a risk of data loss when abrupt crashes occur and take long time to recover. sometimes the recovery may as well as end up with corrupt files. By using the advantage of ext2 and add some data loss protective covering and recovery slewnonball along led to the development of journaling file system ext3 and ReiserFs. though ext2, ext3 and ReiserFs are the most popular file system, there are to a fault some other file system employ in the Linux orbit such as JSF and XFS.As Linux views all file systems from the perspective of a common dictated of objects, there are four objects super pig out, inode, dentry and file. The super shut down is a structure that represents a file system which includes vital information about the system. Moreover, it includes the file system name (such as ext2), the size of the file system and its state, a reference to the block device, and meta-data information. It also keeps track of all the nodes. Linux keeps multiple copies of the superblock in various locations on the disk to prevent losing such vital information. either object that is managed within a file system (file or directory) is correspond in Linux as an inode. The inode contains all the meta-data to manage objects in the file system. another(prenominal) set of structures, called dentries, is employ to translate between names and inodes, for which a directory cache exists to keep the most-recently use around. The dentry also maintains relationships between directories and files for traversing file systems. Finally, a V FS (Virtual file system) file represents an dependent file (keeps state for the open file such as the hold open offset, and so on). eyepatch the majority of the file system code exists in the eye (except for user-space file systems), (2.3) shows the Linux file system from the point of view of high-ranking architecture and the relationships between the major file system-related components in both user space and the nubble.The chill task and start up task of Windows XPA good understanding of what happens to disk data at inaugural is also an important aspect as accessing to a computer system aft(prenominal) it was used for illicit reasons bum alter the disk evidence. First, we will deal about the Windows XP startup and recoil dish, and then tip into the startup and frisson suffice of Linux.Like any other PC system, Windows XP startup by running the POST test, playing an initialization of its adroit system devices, and performing a system guardianship process. The ge t up process mystifys when the BIOS starts looking through the system for a traverse arouse record (MBR). This record empennage reside on drive C or at any other location in the system. When the BIOS execute the master boot record on the hard drive, the MBR probes the disks naval division table to commit the active partition. The boot process then moves to the boot sector of that partition located in the first sector of the active partition. in that respect, it finds the code to go loading the secondhand Bootstrap Loader from the root directory of the boot drive.In NTFS partition, the bootstrap loader is named NTLDR and is responsible for loading XP operation system into memory. When the system is powered on, NTLDR reads the Boot.ini file. If boot.ini contains more than one operating system entry, a boot menu is displayed to the user, according the user to choose which operating system is to be loaded. fig (2.4) shows Boot.ini contains two operating systems and allows u ser to choose. afterwards the user has selected the desired room to boot to, NTLDR runs Ntoskrnl.exe and reads Bootvid.dll, Hal.dll and the startup device drivers. After the file system driver has loaded, control is then passed from NTLDR to the kernel. At this time, Windows XP display Windows logo.Virtually, all applications we installed using the default installation try that they should start up when windows starts. Under Startup tab in the system configuration good, a list of political programs that run when our system boots is listed. Fig (2.6) shows the listed program when our system boots.The boot task and start up task of LinuxAfter we have get into the start up process of Windows XP, we will then shift into the startup process of Linux. In Linux, the catamenia of control during a boot is also from BIOS, to boot loader, to kernel. When you turn on the power, the BIOS perform hardware-platform peculiar(prenominal) startup tasks. Once the hardware is recognized and star ted correctly, the BIOS fill and executes the partition boot code from the designated boot device, which contains Linux boot loader.Linux Loader (LILO) is the Linux utility that initiates the boot process, which usually runs from the disks MBR. LILO is a boot manager that allows you to start Linux or other operating systems, including Windows. If a system has two or more operating systems, LILO gives a prompt asking which operating system the user wishes to initialize.When the user chooses the boot option, it then loads the choosing operating system into memory. The boot program, in turn, reads the kernel into memory. When the kernel is loaded, the boot program transfers control of the boot process to the kernel. The kernel then performs the majority of system setup (memory management, device initialization) ahead spawning separately, the unwarrantable process and scheduler and the init process which is executed in user space. The scheduler takes control of the system management. The init process executes scripts as needed that set up all non-operating system services and structures in order to allow a user surroundings to be created, and then presents the user with a login screen.We have described about the way the data stored, the boot task and startup task of Windows XP and Linux. After a thorough study of these areas, we fucking get into or make out the evidence properly.Task 3a) Features equivalence of EnCase, irritate entropys Forensic and ProDiscoverFeatures of focusing EnCase Forensic* In courts worldwide, forensically film data in a sound manner using software with an uneven record* victimisation a single tool and investigate and psycho try multiple platforms* With prebuilt EnScript modules such as initialized Case and Event Log analysis, it feces automate tangled and routine tasks, so it save time in analyzing* Find information despite efforts to hide, cloak or delete* dejection easily handle large volumes of computer evidence, view all relevant files that includes deleted files, file make relaxed and unallocated space* Directly transfer evidence files to law enforcement or legal representatives as necessary* Include review options that allow non-investigators to review evidence easily* Include report options that enable ready report preparationFeatures of gate informations Forensic prickingkit* Provides integrated solution that is no need to barter for multiple tools to complete a case.* Provides integrated database that suspend application crashes, disconnected work and intersection instability.* Identify encrypted files automatically from more than 80 applications and collapse those files.* hurts international language that allows us easily search and view foreign-language data in our native format* Include electronic mail analysis that can recover and analyze a wide range of telecommunicate and entanglement mail formats* Can generate different industry-standard report formats quickly and in s hort* Collect key information from the registry that include user information, date of application installed, hardware, time zone and recently used information* While processing takes place, we can view and analyze dataFeatures of ProDiscover* To keep master key evidence safe, it create bit-stream copy of disk for analyzing that includes hidden HPA section* For complete disk forensic analysis, it search files or unblemished disk including ease up space, HPA section and Windows NT/2000/XP alternate data streams* Without alter data on the disk, it can preview all files including metadata and hidden or deleted files* Support for VMware to run a captured characterization.* In order to ensure nothing is hidden, it probe data at the file or cluster level* To see data integrity, it can generate and record MD5, SHA1 and SHA256 chop upes automatically.* Examine FAT12, FAT16, FAT 32 and all NTFS file systems including Dynamic Disk and Software RAID for supreme flexibility.* Examine s unbathe Solaris UFS file system and Linux ext2 / ext3 file systems.* integrated thumbnail graphics, meshwork history, event log file, and registry viewers to facilitate investigation process.* Integrated viewer to examine .pst /.ost and .dbx e-mail files.* Utilize Perl scripts to automate investigation tasks.* Extracts EXIF information from JPEG files to identify file creators.* Automated report generation in XML format saves time, improves accuracy and compatibility.* graphical user interface interface and integrated help function assure quick start and ease of use.* Designed to NIST Disk Imaging Tool Specification 3.1.6 to meet high quality. entrance feeData FTK v2.0Guidance EnCase Forensic 6.0ProDiscover ForensicReport for Choosing Access Datas Forensic ToolkitI think Access Datas Forensic Toolkit is the most advantageous for our lab as it provides more forensic run features than Encase and ProDiscover. In the evidence aspects, Access Data can acquire files and folders than others. So, it can be a powerful tool when we analyze files for evidence. Moreover, it uses database to support large volume of data that can avoid application crashes, upset work and product instability for our lab.As Access Data is a GUI-based utility that can run in Windows XP, 2000, Me, or 9x operating system and it demo random variable has most of the selfsame(prenominal) features as full-licensed version, use multi-threading to perfect CPU usage, has task scheduler to optimize time and can view and analyze data piece processing takes place, it meets the requirements of our lab. What is more, it supports international language so we can call back data no matter which languages they are using.On concealment of that, it is powerful in searching, recovery, email and graphic analysis. Because of these reasons and by viewing the supra forensic tools comparison chart, I can reason out that Access Datas Forensic Toolkit is the most proficient for our lab.b) Forensic AnalysisR eport for Analyzing FAT32, NTFS and CDFS file system utilise Access Datas FTKTask 4a) MD5 haschischeesh take accounts of bmp, doc, xls files all in all chop up determines generated by the MD5 earlier modification is not the same with the haschisch look upon generated after(prenominal) modification.b) Why chop set are same or differentA hash harbor is a numeric pry of a fixed length that unique(p)ly identifies data. Data can be compared to a hash order to determine its integrity. Data is hashed and the hash pry is stored. At a later time or after the data has been received from mail, the data is hashed again and compared to the stored hash or the hash time value it was sent to determine whether the data was altered.In order to compare the hash set, the original hashed data must be encrypted or kept dark from all untrusted parties. When it compared, if the compared hashed value are the same, then the data has not been altered. If the file has been modified or corrup ted, the MD5 produces different hash values.In task 4 (a), first we created a doc file with data in this file, then we generated hash values of doc file with MD5. The hash value of info.doc file is da5fd802f47c9b5bbdced35b9a1202e6. After that, we made a modification to that info.doc file and regenerate the hash values. The hash value after modifying is 01f8badd9846f32a79a5055bfe98adeb. The hash value is completely different after modifying. past we created a cv.xls file and generated the hash value. Before modifying, the hash value is ef9bbfeec4d8e455b749447377a5e84f. After that we add one record to cv.xls file and regenerated hash values. After modifying, ccfee18e1e713cdd2fcf565298928673 hash value is produced. The hash value changed in cv.xls file after data altered.Furthermore, we created fruit.bmp file to compare the hash value before and after modification. The hash value before modifying is 8d06bdfe03df83bb3942ce71daca3888 and after modifying is 667d82f0545f0d187dfa0227ea2c7ff 6. So, the hash values comparison of bmp files is completely different after data has been modified.When we encrypted the text file into each cooking stove file, the text file is not visible in the two-baser viewing utility and each mountain range file is akin its original epitome file. However, the comparison of the hash values of each epitome file before and after inserting petty subject matters is completely different. As each image file has been altered by inserting footling meat, the regenerated hash value is totally different from the original hash values.On top of that, the original image file size has been changed after inserting short messages. The raster image file has slightly increased its file size after it has been modified. The raster image file size is increased from 50.5 KB to 50.7 KB. However, of the remaining three, two image files transmitter and metafile have decrease its file size a little sharply. The original file size of transmitter is 266 KB and has been decreased to 200 KB after modified. The metafile also decreased from 313 KB to 156 KB. only(prenominal) the bitmap is remains stable as its file size does not increase or decrease.In a nut shell, we can conclude that the hash value would change if the file has been modified. However, depending on the file format, the file size can increase, decrease or remain stable.d) Report for differences of bitmap, raster, transmitter and metafileA bitmap image is a computer file and it is compile with dots or pixels that form an image. The pixel of bitmap is stored resembling a grid, precise square. When we use the blusher program, we can see the bitmap pixel is kindred a block and it is draw or clear block by block. A raster image is also a collection of pixels but the image stored pixels in rows to make it easy to scar. And raster image is resolving power dependent. It cannot scale up to an arbitrary resolve without loss of apparent quality. This is overcome by the transmit ter image.Vector image is made up of many individual, scalable objects. These objects are defined by mathematical equations rather than pixels, so it always fall in at the highest quality. There are many attributes in vector like color, fill and outline. The attributes can be changed without destroying the basic object.Metafile is a combination of raster and vector graphics, and can have the characteristics of both image types. However, if you create a metafile with raster and vector and enlarge it, the area of raster format will lose some resolution while the vector formatted area remains sharp and clear.If we have wooly-minded an image file, before doing anything, we should be familiar with the data patterns of known image file types. Then the recovery process starts. The first step in recovery is to recover portions file from slack space and free space. The fragment file can locate the promontory data that is fond(p)ly overwritten. So, we use Drivespy to identify accomplis hable unallocated data sets that contain the full or partial image principal values.To locate and recover the image principal, we need to know the absolute jump cluster and ending cluster. If not, we could collect the wrong data. Using Drivespy, we can know started cluster number and file size of image that we want to recover. To know the exact ending cluster, add the total number of clusters assigned to the head start cluster position. As we have known the size of image file, we can calculate the total number of clusters. Then, we can locate the image file and retrieve image header.After we get the header value, open the file with Microsoft Photo Viewer. If the file has been opened successfully, then recovery of image file has been completed. If not, we need to use the Hex Workshop to examine the header of the file.Task 5Report for Investigation that prove Naomis purityBefore we begin tracing an email, we should know which email is illegal and what constitutes an email crime. Illegal email includes selling narcotics, extortion, sexual harassment, stalking, fraud, child abductions, and child pornography.As Jazebel has received an ill-scented email, so we need to access the victim computer and copy and print the offensive email to recover the evidence contained in the email. Microsoft Outlook, Outlook shew or any other GUI email programs supports for write the email from inbox to the place that we want to by dragging the message to the storage place. When copying email, the header of the email must be include as it contains unique identifying numbers, such as IP address of the waiter that sent the message. This helps us when tracing the email.After copy and printing the message, we should retrieve the email header to get the sender IP address. Right snarl on the message and choose message options to retrieve the email header. The following shows the header information that retrieved from the mail of the victim computer.At line 1(10.140.200.11) shows t he IP address of the server send the e-mail, and provides a date and time that the anger e-mails was sent. Although when we see at line 5, the victim is seemed to be Jezebel, however, line 1 identifies that the e-mail that is sent from the IP address (10.140.200.11) is the same as the victims computer IP address. So, we can conclude that Naomi does not include in sending offensive e-mail. She is whiteness and the victim, Jezebel himself, is the one who send the offensive e-mails.ReferencesComputer Forensics texthttp//www.computerforensicsworld.com/index.phphttp//www.crime-research.org/library/Forensics.htmhttp//ixbtlabs.com/articles/ntfs/www.wikipedia.comComputer Forensics Investigation and TechniquesComputer Forensics Investigation and TechniquesIntroductionI am the student of International Advanced Diploma in Computer Studies (IADCS). In this course, I have to do Compute Forensic assignment. The assignment title is Didsbury Mobile Entertainments LTD. This assignment helps me un derstanding computer forensics investigation and techniquesBefore this assignment, although I am interested in computer forensic, I am hardly used computer forensics toolkit or done any investigation. Because of this assignment, I have learnt many techniques how to investigate computer and done it practically. So, by doing this assignment, I have gained in practical and much valuable knowledge in Computer Forensics.nd a heartfelt thanks to all the people in Myanma Computer Company Ltd. for their warmly welcome during the period of the IADCS course and this assignment developed.Task 1i) ReportDIDSBURY MOBILE ENTERTAINMENTS LTDNo(5), Duku place, Singapore Jan 10, 2010IntroductionComputer forensics involves obtaining and analyzing digital information for figuring out what happened, when it happened, how it happened and who was involved. What is more, it is use as evidence in civil, criminal, or administrative cases.Reasons for a need for computer forensic investigationComputer forensic s investigation can recover thousands of deleted mails, can know when the user log into the system and what he does, can determine the motivation and intent of the user, can search keywords in a hard drive in different languages and can gain evidence against an employee that an organization wished to terminate. For these reasons, in order to know whether Jalitha has been spending her time on her friend business or not, we need a computer forensic investigation.Steps to pursue the investigationIn order to pursue the investigation, I would take the following steps1) Secure the computer system to ensure that the equipment and data are safe2) Find every file on the computer system, including files that are encrypted, protected by passwords, hidden or deleted, but not yet overwritten.3) Copy all files and work on this copy files as accessing a file can alter its original value4) Start a detailed journal with the date and time and date/information discovered5) Collect email, DNS, and othe r network service logs6) Analyze with various computer forensics tools and software7) Print out an overall analysis8) Evaluating the information/data recovered to determine the caseConclusionAfter we know the reasons and steps for investigation, then we should move on to conduct the investigation. However, we should note that the first step of investigation is critical as if the system is not secure, then the evidence or data we found may not be admissible.ii a) Report for The procedures to make sure the evidence holds up in courtDIDSBURY MOBILE ENTERTAINMENTS LTDNo(5), Duku place, SingaporeJan 12, 2010IntroductionEvidence is any physical or electronic information (such as computer log files, data, reports, hardware, disk image, etc) that is collected during a computer forensic investigation. The purpose of gathering evidence is to help determine the source of the attack, and to introduce the evidence as testimony in a court of law.Procedures to make sure the evidence holds up in c ourtIn order to make the evidence admissible in court, we need to follow the following steps1) Before any evidence can be gathered, a warrant must be issued so that forensic specialist has the legal authority to seize, copy and examine the data2) Have the responsibility to ensure that the law and the principles we used are met3) Evidence must be obtained in a manner which ensures the authenticity and validity and that no tampering had taken place4) Tracking the chain of custody is essential for preparing evidence as it shows the evidence was collected from the system in question, and was stored and managed without alteration.5) Extracted/ relevant evidence is properly handled and protected from later mechanical or electromagnetic damage6) Preventing viruses from being introduced to a computer during the analysis process7) To ensure that original evidence must be described in complete details to present reliable evidence on the court8) Must arrange to answer reliability questions rel ating to the software we have usedConclusionIn gathering evidence, authenticity, reliability and chain of custody are important aspects to be considered. By following the above steps, we are proper in handling the evidence holds up in court.ii b) Evidence formDidsbury Mobile Entertainments LtdIT DepartmentComputer InvestigationCase No.005Investigation OrganizationGold StarInvestigatorWin Pa Pa AyeNature of CaseCompanys policy violation caseLocation where evidence was obtainedOn suspects office deskDescription of evidenceVendor NameModel No./ Serial No.Item 1One CDSonyItem 2A 4GB flash memory deviceKingston05360-374.A00LFItem 3Evidence Recovered byWin Pa Pa AyeDate Time10.12.20091000 AMEvidence Placed in LockerE2419Date Time15.12.20091100 AMItem Evidence Processed byDescription of EvidenceDate/ Time1Win Pa Pa AyeFully recovered deleted email on the drive which is sent to Radasas company, including data exchange between the businesses.13.12.2009300 PM2Win Pa Pa AyeEncrypted documen t hidden inside a bitmap file. Decrypted and saved on another media.18.12.2009900 AM3Win Pa Pa AyePassword-protected document covering the exchange of information with her friend. Password cracked and file saved on another media.22.12.2009200 PMTask 2Report for the way the data is stored, boot tasks and start up tasks for Windows and Linux systemsTo effectively investigate computer evidence, we must understand how the most popular operating systems work in general and how they store files in particular. The type of file system an operating system uses determines how data is stored on the disk. The file system is the general name given to the logical structures and software routines used to control access to the storage on a hard disk system and it is usually related to an operating system. To know the way the data is stored in Windows XP and Linux, we need to get into file systems of Windows and Linux.The way the data is stored in Windows XPIn Windows XP, although it supports severa l different file systems, NTFS is the primary file system for Windows XP. So, we will have a look in NTFS as the NTFS system offers better performance and features than a FAT16 and FAT 32 system.NTFS divides all useful places into clusters and supports almost all sizes of clusters from 512 bytes up to 64 Kbytes. And NTFS disk is symbolically divided into two parts MFT (Master File Table) area and files storage area. The MFT consumes about 12% of the disk and contains information about all files located on the disk. This includes the system file used by the operating system. MFT is divided into records of the fixed size (usually 1 Kbytes), and each record corresponds to some file. Records within the MFT are referred to as meta-data and the first 16 records are reserved for system files. For reliability, the first three records of MFT file is copied and stored exactly in the middle of the disk and the remaining can be stored anyplace of the disk. The remaining 88% of disk space is f or file storage. Below is the partition structure of NTFS system.After we know the file system of Windows XP, then we will move on to the file system of Linux.The way the data is stored in LinuxWhen it comes to Linux file system, ext2 has been the default file system as it main advantages is its speed and extremely robust. However, there is a risk of data loss when sudden crashes occur and take long time to recover. Sometimes the recovery may also end up with corrupt files. By using the advantage of ext2 and add some data loss protection and recovery speed led to the development of journaling file system ext3 and ReiserFs. Though ext2, ext3 and ReiserFs are the most popular file system, there are also some other file system used in the Linux world such as JSF and XFS.As Linux views all file systems from the perspective of a common set of objects, there are four objects superblock, inode, dentry and file. The superblock is a structure that represents a file system which includes vi tal information about the system. Moreover, it includes the file system name (such as ext2), the size of the file system and its state, a reference to the block device, and meta-data information. It also keeps track of all the nodes. Linux keeps multiple copies of the superblock in various locations on the disk to prevent losing such vital information.Every object that is managed within a file system (file or directory) is represented in Linux as an inode. The inode contains all the meta-data to manage objects in the file system. Another set of structures, called dentries, is used to translate between names and inodes, for which a directory cache exists to keep the most-recently used around. The dentry also maintains relationships between directories and files for traversing file systems. Finally, a VFS (Virtual file system) file represents an open file (keeps state for the open file such as the write offset, and so on).While the majority of the file system code exists in the kernel (except for user-space file systems), (2.3) shows the Linux file system from the point of view of high-level architecture and the relationships between the major file system-related components in both user space and the kernel.The boot task and start up task of Windows XPA good understanding of what happens to disk data at startup is also an important aspect as accessing to a computer system after it was used for illicit reasons can alter the disk evidence. First, we will discuss about the Windows XP startup and boot process, and then shift into the startup and boot process of Linux.Like any other PC system, Windows XP startup by running the POST test, performing an initialization of its intelligent system devices, and performing a system boot process. The boot process begins when the BIOS starts looking through the system for a master boot record (MBR). This record can reside on drive C or at any other location in the system. When the BIOS execute the master boot record on the har d drive, the MBR examines the disks partition table to locate the active partition. The boot process then moves to the boot sector of that partition located in the first sector of the active partition. There, it finds the code to begin loading the Secondary Bootstrap Loader from the root directory of the boot drive.In NTFS partition, the bootstrap loader is named NTLDR and is responsible for loading XP operation system into memory. When the system is powered on, NTLDR reads the Boot.ini file. If boot.ini contains more than one operating system entry, a boot menu is displayed to the user, allowing the user to choose which operating system is to be loaded. Fig (2.4) shows Boot.ini contains two operating systems and allows user to choose.After the user has selected the desired mode to boot to, NTLDR runs Ntoskrnl.exe and reads Bootvid.dll, Hal.dll and the startup device drivers. After the file system driver has loaded, control is then passed from NTLDR to the kernel. At this time, Wind ows XP display Windows logo.Virtually, all applications we installed using the default installation decide that they should start up when windows starts. Under Startup tab in the system configuration utility, a list of programs that run when our system boots is listed. Fig (2.6) shows the listed program when our system boots.The boot task and start up task of LinuxAfter we have get into the start up process of Windows XP, we will then shift into the startup process of Linux. In Linux, the flow of control during a boot is also from BIOS, to boot loader, to kernel. When you turn on the power, the BIOS perform hardware-platform specific startup tasks. Once the hardware is recognized and started correctly, the BIOS loads and executes the partition boot code from the designated boot device, which contains Linux boot loader.Linux Loader (LILO) is the Linux utility that initiates the boot process, which usually runs from the disks MBR. LILO is a boot manager that allows you to start Linux or other operating systems, including Windows. If a system has two or more operating systems, LILO gives a prompt asking which operating system the user wishes to initialize.When the user chooses the boot option, it then loads the choosing operating system into memory. The boot program, in turn, reads the kernel into memory. When the kernel is loaded, the boot program transfers control of the boot process to the kernel. The kernel then performs the majority of system setup (memory management, device initialization) before spawning separately, the idle process and scheduler and the init process which is executed in user space. The scheduler takes control of the system management. The init process executes scripts as needed that set up all non-operating system services and structures in order to allow a user environment to be created, and then presents the user with a login screen.We have described about the way the data stored, the boot task and startup task of Windows XP and Linux. After a thorough study of these areas, we can acquire or handle the evidence properly.Task 3a) Features comparison of EnCase, Access Datas Forensic and ProDiscoverFeatures of Guidance EnCase Forensic* In courts worldwide, forensically acquire data in a sound manner using software with an unparallel record* Using a single tool and investigate and analyze multiple platforms* With prebuilt EnScript modules such as initialized Case and Event Log analysis, it can automate complex and routine tasks, so it save time in analyzing* Find information despite efforts to hide, cloak or delete* Can easily handle large volumes of computer evidence, view all relevant files that includes deleted files, file slack and unallocated space* Directly transfer evidence files to law enforcement or legal representatives as necessary* Include review options that allow non-investigators to review evidence easily* Include report options that enable quick report preparationFeatures of Access Datas Forensic Toolk it* Provides integrated solution that is no need to purchase multiple tools to complete a case.* Provides integrated database that avoid application crashes, lost work and product instability.* Identify encrypted files automatically from more than 80 applications and crack those files.* Supports international language that allows us easily search and view foreign-language data in our native format* Include email analysis that can recover and analyze a wide range of email and web mail formats* Can generate different industry-standard report formats quickly and concisely* Collect key information from the registry that include user information, date of application installed, hardware, time zone and recently used information* While processing takes place, we can view and analyze dataFeatures of ProDiscover* To keep original evidence safe, it create bit-stream copy of disk for analyzing that includes hidden HPA section* For complete disk forensic analysis, it search files or entire disk including slack space, HPA section and Windows NT/2000/XP alternate data streams* Without alter data on the disk, it can preview all files including metadata and hidden or deleted files* Support for VMware to run a captured image.* In order to ensure nothing is hidden, it examine data at the file or cluster level* To prove data integrity, it can generate and record MD5, SHA1 and SHA256 hashes automatically.* Examine FAT12, FAT16, FAT 32 and all NTFS file systems including Dynamic Disk and Software RAID for maximum flexibility.* Examine Sun Solaris UFS file system and Linux ext2 / ext3 file systems.* Integrated thumbnail graphics, internet history, event log file, and registry viewers to facilitate investigation process.* Integrated viewer to examine .pst /.ost and .dbx e-mail files.* Utilize Perl scripts to automate investigation tasks.* Extracts EXIF information from JPEG files to identify file creators.* Automated report generation in XML format saves time, improves accuracy and c ompatibility.* GUI interface and integrated help function assure quick start and ease of use.* Designed to NIST Disk Imaging Tool Specification 3.1.6 to insure high quality.AccessData FTK v2.0Guidance EnCase Forensic 6.0ProDiscover ForensicReport for Choosing Access Datas Forensic ToolkitI think Access Datas Forensic Toolkit is the most beneficial for our lab as it provides more forensic examination features than Encase and ProDiscover. In the evidence aspects, Access Data can acquire files and folders than others. So, it can be a powerful tool when we analyze files for evidence. Moreover, it uses database to support large volume of data that can avoid application crashes, lost work and product instability for our lab.As Access Data is a GUI-based utility that can run in Windows XP, 2000, Me, or 9x operating system and it demo version has most of the same features as full-licensed version, use multi-threading to optimize CPU usage, has task scheduler to optimize time and can view an d analyze data while processing takes place, it meets the requirements of our lab. What is more, it supports international language so we can retrieve data no matter which languages they are using.On top of that, it is powerful in searching, recovery, email and graphic analysis. Because of these reasons and by viewing the above forensic tools comparison chart, I can conclude that Access Datas Forensic Toolkit is the most beneficial for our lab.b) Forensic AnalysisReport for Analyzing FAT32, NTFS and CDFS file system Using Access Datas FTKTask 4a) MD5 hash values of bmp, doc, xls filesAll hash values generated by the MD5 before modification is not the same with the hash value generated after modification.b) Why hash values are same or differentA hash value is a numeric value of a fixed length that uniquely identifies data. Data can be compared to a hash value to determine its integrity. Data is hashed and the hash value is stored. At a later time or after the data has been received f rom mail, the data is hashed again and compared to the stored hash or the hash value it was sent to determine whether the data was altered.In order to compare the hash values, the original hashed data must be encrypted or kept secret from all untrusted parties. When it compared, if the compared hashed values are the same, then the data has not been altered. If the file has been modified or corrupted, the MD5 produces different hash values.In task 4 (a), first we created a doc file with data in this file, then we generated hash values of doc file with MD5. The hash value of info.doc file is da5fd802f47c9b5bbdced35b9a1202e6. After that, we made a modification to that info.doc file and regenerate the hash values. The hash value after modifying is 01f8badd9846f32a79a5055bfe98adeb. The hash value is completely different after modifying.Then we created a cv.xls file and generated the hash value. Before modifying, the hash value is ef9bbfeec4d8e455b749447377a5e84f. After that we add one re cord to cv.xls file and regenerated hash values. After modifying, ccfee18e1e713cdd2fcf565298928673 hash value is produced. The hash value changed in cv.xls file after data altered.Furthermore, we created fruit.bmp file to compare the hash value before and after modification. The hash value before modifying is 8d06bdfe03df83bb3942ce71daca3888 and after modifying is 667d82f0545f0d187dfa0227ea2c7ff6. So, the hash values comparison of bmp files is completely different after data has been modified.When we encrypted the text file into each image file, the text file is not visible in the image viewing utility and each image file is like its original image file. However, the comparison of the hash values of each image file before and after inserting short messages is completely different. As each image file has been altered by inserting short message, the regenerated hash value is totally different from the original hash values.On top of that, the original image file size has been changed a fter inserting short messages. The raster image file has slightly increased its file size after it has been modified. The raster image file size is increased from 50.5 KB to 50.7 KB. However, of the remaining three, two image files vector and metafile have decreased its file size a little sharply. The original file size of vector is 266 KB and has been decreased to 200 KB after modified. The metafile also decreased from 313 KB to 156 KB. Only the bitmap is remains stable as its file size does not increase or decrease.In a nut shell, we can conclude that the hash value would change if the file has been modified. However, depending on the file format, the file size can increase, decrease or remain stable.d) Report for differences of bitmap, raster, vector and metafileA bitmap image is a computer file and it is collected with dots or pixels that form an image. The pixel of bitmap is stored like a grid, tiny square. When we use the paint program, we can see the bitmap pixel is like a bl ock and it is draw or clear block by block. A raster image is also a collection of pixels but the image stored pixels in rows to make it easy to print. And raster image is resolution dependent. It cannot scale up to an arbitrary resolution without loss of apparent quality. This is overcome by the vector image.Vector image is made up of many individual, scalable objects. These objects are defined by mathematical equations rather than pixels, so it always render at the highest quality. There are many attributes in vector like color, fill and outline. The attributes can be changed without destroying the basic object.Metafile is a combination of raster and vector graphics, and can have the characteristics of both image types. However, if you create a metafile with raster and vector and enlarge it, the area of raster format will lose some resolution while the vector formatted area remains sharp and clear.If we have lost an image file, before doing anything, we should be familiar with the data patterns of known image file types. Then the recovery process starts. The first step in recovery is to recover fragments file from slack space and free space. The fragment file can locate the header data that is partially overwritten. So, we use Drivespy to identify possible unallocated data sets that contain the full or partial image header values.To locate and recover the image header, we need to know the absolute starting cluster and ending cluster. If not, we could collect the wrong data. Using Drivespy, we can know started cluster number and file size of image that we want to recover. To know the exact ending cluster, add the total number of clusters assigned to the starting cluster position. As we have known the size of image file, we can calculate the total number of clusters. Then, we can locate the image file and retrieve image header.After we get the header value, open the file with Microsoft Photo Viewer. If the file has been opened successfully, then recovery of im age file has been completed. If not, we need to use the Hex Workshop to examine the header of the file.Task 5Report for Investigation that prove Naomis innocenceBefore we begin tracing an email, we should know which email is illegal and what constitutes an email crime. Illegal email includes selling narcotics, extortion, sexual harassment, stalking, fraud, child abductions, and child pornography.As Jazebel has received an offensive email, so we need to access the victim computer and copy and print the offensive email to recover the evidence contained in the email. Microsoft Outlook, Outlook Express or any other GUI email programs supports for copying the email from inbox to the place that we want to by dragging the message to the storage place. When copying email, the header of the email must be included as it contains unique identifying numbers, such as IP address of the server that sent the message. This helps us when tracing the email.After copy and printing the message, we shoul d retrieve the email header to get the sender IP address. Right click on the message and choose message options to retrieve the email header. The following shows the header information that retrieved from the mail of the victim computer.At line 1(10.140.200.11) shows the IP address of the server sending the e-mail, and provides a date and time that the offending e-mails was sent. Although when we see at line 5, the victim is seemed to be Jezebel, however, line 1 identifies that the e-mail that is sent from the IP address (10.140.200.11) is the same as the victims computer IP address. So, we can conclude that Naomi does not include in sending offensive e-mail. She is innocence and the victim, Jezebel himself, is the one who send the offensive e-mails.ReferencesComputer Forensics Textbookhttp//www.computerforensicsworld.com/index.phphttp//www.crime-research.org/library/Forensics.htmhttp//ixbtlabs.com/articles/ntfs/www.wikipedia.com

Besseren lösungen für detaillierte problemfelder

Besou-sou-eastren lsungen fr detaillierte problemfelder1 Grundlagen pass onthylstilboestrol BenchmarkingBenchmarking (BM) ist, in Ergnzung zum klassischen Unternehmensvergleich, durch rabbit systematische Suchen nach rationellen Vorgehensweisen und besseren Lsungen fr detaillierte Problemfelder und Prozesse auerhalb der eigenen Welt bzw. der eigenen Branche gekennzeichnet. Nicht crush Unterschiede zu anderen Unternehmen sind beim Benchmarking der Schwerpunkt der Untersuchung, sondern become flat gezielte I hideawaytifikation der besten Praktiken, mit retreaten berdurchschnittliche Wettbewerbspotentiale zu erreichen sind. Benchmarking wird entscheidend durch folgende Frage charakterisiert Warum machen es andere besser und was knnen wir daraus lernen?Der Beweis der Durchfhrbarkeit neuer Ideen durch ihre tgliche Anwendung in anderen Unternehmen und kick the bucket damit verbundene Motivation der eigenen Mitarbeiter ist ein wesentlicher Bestandteil stilbesterol Benchmarking. Ers t der Blick ber den eigenen Tellerrand ermglicht Leistungssprnge um Grenordnungen. Damit erweist sich Benchmarking amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ein Instrument zur Leistungssteigerung fr Unternehmen aus allen Branchen und gewinnt unter den homophileagementtechniken immer mehr an Bedeutung. swoon flexiblen Einsatzmglichkeiten als Werkzeug um verkrustete Unternehmensstrukturen aufzudecken oder als Instrument zum Aufzeigen der Optimierungsmglichkeiten von Geschftsprozessen bis hin zur Entscheidungsuntersttzung bei Fragen der strategischen Ausrichtung machen rock rabbit Benchmarking wertvoll.Benchmarking darf jedoch nicht als rabbit Wundermittel zur Steigerung der eigenen Wettbewerbsfhigkeit verstanden werden, denn insbesondere klein- und mittelgroe Unternehmen haben noch Schwierigkeiten bei der praktischen Umsetzung stilboestrol Benchmarking. rock rabbit Neue kick downstairsthylstilbesterol Benchmarking liegt im branchenbergreifenden Vergleich mit den Besten und dem Setzen von Mastben fr das eigene Unternehmen. fatigue Vorgehensweise dashthylstilboestrol Benchmarking integriert dabei vorhandene Managementmethoden und bringt erst durch eine konsequente, ganzheitliche und kontinuierliche Anwendung den gewnschten Erfolg. Verschiedene Voraussetzungen sind dazu allerdings erforderlich (siehe Abb. 1)1.1 interpretationBenchmarking ist ein kontinuierlicher Proze, bei dem Produkte, soundnstleistungen und insbesondere Methoden betrieblicher Funktionen ber mehrere Unternehmen hinweg verglichen werden. Dabei sollen go past Unterschiede zu anderen Unternehmen offengelegt, run short Ursachen fr hap Unterschiede und Mglichkeiten zur Verbesserung ermittelt werden. Der Vergleich findet dabei zu Unternehmen statt, welche demote zu untersuchenden Methoden oder Prozesse hervorragend beherrschen. Diese Unternehmen werden dabei oft als Klassenbeste best in class bezeichnet. (Vgl. Camp 1989, S.19).1.2 Ziele separatethylstilbesterol BenchmarkingBenchmarking ist an er ster Stelle ein Zielsetzungsproze. Aber, und das ist wichtiger, es ist ein Mittel, live Praktiken, snap off zum Erreichen neuer Ziele ntig sind, zu entdecken und zu verstehen. Diese sind wahrscheinlich das wichtigste und grundlegende Resultat stilboestrol Benchmarking. Neben dem grundstzlichen Ziel stilbesterol Benchmarking, Vorgaben zu setzen, ist der motivierende Wert ebenfalls erheblich. Wenn Bechmarking voll integriert wird in dissect Verantwortlichkeiten, Arbeitsprozesse und das Vergtungssystem, wird offend Organisation willens und fhig, sich aus eigenem Antrieb in Richtung realistischer Ziele zu bewegen und existierende Arbeitspraktiken zu ndern. Sie wird Manahmen ergreifen und Vernderungen herbeifhren, become sonst htten diktiert werden mssen. (Vgl. Camp 1994, S. 34). Benchmarking kann sich dabei auf verschiedene Objekte beziehen (siehe Abb.2)1.3 Nutzen stilbestrol BenchmarkingEs gibt viele Wege, den Nutzen zu beschreiben, der aus Bechmarking gezogen werden kann. Der wesentliche Vorteil wird abgeleitet von der Erfllung von Kundenwnschen, dem Setzen von Zielen, dem Messen der tatschlichen Produktivitt, dem Erlangen der Wettbewerbsfhigkeit und dem Sicherstellen, da lead besten Praktiken in den Arbeitsproze einbezogen sind. Es kann dabei prinzipiell ein direkter und ein indirekter Nutzen identifiziert werden (siehe Abb. 3 und 4).1.4 Entwicklung returnthylstilbestrol Benchmarking1.4.1 Die ersten Benchmarking-UntersuchungenGanz neu ist der Ansatz stilbesterol Benchmarking nicht. Zu Beginn go wrongses Jahrhunderts wurde vom deutschen Militr kick the bucket erste bekannte Stu communicate durchgefhrt. Man chapeaute erkannt, da grere Truppenbewegungen sehr zeitaufwendig und kostenintensiv waren. Durch einen Zeitungsbericht erfuhr ein Soldat, da es in Amerika einen groen Zirkus gibt, der es schaffte, in einer Nacht function Zelte abzubrechen, smtliche Gter auf last Bahn zu verladen und mit allen Menschen und Tieren per Bahn in blow over nchste S tadt aufzubrechen. Diese schier unglaubliche Leistung bewog das Militr mit einer Gruppe von Experten in ease up Vereinigten Staaten zu reisen um sich vor Ort ein Bild von conksem Vorgang zu machen. Es zeigte sich, da der Zirkus neben einer kompetenten Logistikabteilung spezielle Fahrzeuge entwickelt hatte. Mit diesem Wissen konnte, zurck in der Heimat, eine signifikante Verbesserung der Truppenbewegung umgesetzt werden.Die Einfhrung der ersten Fliebnder in der Automobilindustrie im Jahre 1916 ist ein weiteres Beispiel der frhen Anwendung von Bechmarking. Inspiriert durch Besuche einer Groschlachterei in Chicago, wo Schweinehlften an einer Hngebahn von Arbeitsplatz zu Arbeitsplatz transportiert wurden, fhrte Henry Ford das Flieband in der Automobilindustrie ein.Das Kanban-System stellt ebenfalls eine bertragung eines Prinzips aus einer anderen Branche dar. Durch das Studium der Organisation amerikanischer Supermarktketten und hier insbesondere das Nachfllen der Regale entwickelte s ich bei Toyota das Prinzip der Kanban-Karten, das heute in vielen Brachen Verbreitung gefunden hat.1.4.2 Die Prgung stilbestrol Begriffs durch XeroxDer Begriff Benchmarking wurde von Xerox im Jahr 1979 geprgt. Zu dieser Zeit stellte Xerox fest, da die japanische Konkurrenz Kopierer zu einem Preis verkaufte, der unter den Produktionskosten bei Xerox lag. Xerox startete daraufhin im Fertigungsbereich ein marktbezogenes Benchmarking, das sogenannte Competitive Benchmarking. Die auf dem Markt befindlichen Kopierer wurden hinsichtlich Herstellungskosten, Design und anderer Merkmale studiert und analysiert. Aus diesem Vorgehen wurden neue radikale Ziele abgeleitet. Aufgrund stilbestrol Erfolges in der Fertigung bestimmte das Management 1981, da Benchmarking von allen Geschftsbereichen durchzufhren sei. Noch im gleichen Jahr wurde ein branchenbergreifendes Benchmarking-Projekt in den Bereichen Logistik und Distribution durchgefhrt. Dies lieferte den endgltigen Beweis, da Benchmarking auc h auf Geschftsprozesse auerhalb der Produktion bertragbar ist und Benchmarking- attendant nicht aus der gleichen Branche stammen mssen.Besonders bemerkenswert, blickt military serviceman auf den Zeitpunkt Ende der 70er, Anfang der 80er Jahre, ist die Betrachtungsweise von Benchmarking als kontinuierlicher Proze. Dies ist eines der wesentlichen Probleme der exercise. Wichtig ist, schon an dieser Stelle festzuhalten Industrielle Prozesse unterliegen einem steten Wandel. Immer neue Vernderungen, Verbesserungen mssen dokumentiert und eventuell in einen Benchmarking-Proze eingebunden werden. Eine einmalige, Im Hauruck-Verfahren durchgezogene Benchmarking-Aktion kann nicht erfolgreich sein. Robert C. Camp, Benchmarking-Projektleiter bei Xerox bemerkt dazu immediate lapidar Verfahren mssen kontinuierlich beobachtet werden, um sicher zu gehen, da die wirklich besten ihrer Art ermittelt werden. Ausschlielich jene Unternehmen, die Benchmarking diszipliniert betreiben, werden sich hervorra gend weiterentwickeln knnen. In einer dem stndigen Wandel unterworfenen Umwelt ist Selbstgeflligkeit fatal (Vgl. Camp 1989, S. 10).1.5 Der Weg zum Benchmarking / Raus aus dem compulsiveEs gibt verschiedene Grnde weshalb Benchmarking als Hilfsmittel im Management nicht umfassend genutzt wird. Einer davon ist, da Benchmarking funktional nicht zugeordnet werden kann. Als Basisinstrument hat es genauso eine Daseinsberechtigung in den Beschaffungs- und den Produktionsbereichen wie im strategischen market oder in der Vertriebslogistik. In der Vergangenheit, war in der Betriebswirtschaft eine fortschreitende Trennung der Funktionalbereiche und ihrer Methodik zu verfolgen. Dies dokumentiert sich bis heute an den Lehrsthlen europischer Wirtschaftshochschulen. Zumindest in Europa entdeckten zuerst die Controller das Hilfsmittel Benchmarking.Diese bereits gebt im Umgang mit einer Vielzahl von technischen Vergleichswerkzeugen erkannten schnell die Chancen, die die Arbeitstechnik erffnete. B enchmarking ist wichtiger Bestandteil des Instrumentenkastens des zunehmend strategisch orientierten Controllers, schreiben dann auch Horvath und Herter (1992, S.7).Sicher ist es sinnvoll, Benchmarking erst einmal im Controlling anzusiedeln. Der Controller kann anregen, kann Hilfestellungen im Umgang mit verschiedenen Werkzeugen geben, dennoch wird er ber die nachtrgliche berprfung und Vergleichsrechnung, den Denk- und Kreativproze des Benchmarking auf der Management-Schiene nicht ersetzen. Anders als beispielsweise im Target Costing, kann das Controlling sinnvolles Benchmarking nur anregen, stimulieren, nicht jedoch konkrete Zielvorgaben bereitstellen, an denen sich die jeweiligen Funktionsbereiche frei orientieren knnen.Im Benchmarking geht es um das Vorausdenken, nicht um das Nachrechnen Das ist die elementare Botschaft Und dementsprechend kann die Technik im aktuellen Arbeitsproze von allen Funktionsbereichen genutzt werden egal ob das Marketing seine Feldorganisation berprft, d ie Produktion bestimmte Montageschritte unter die Lupe nimmt, die Beschaffung den Proze der Auftragsvergabe nher beleuchtet. Fr all diese Aufgabenstellungen gengt es nicht, einen Controller aus dem Vergleich entwickelte Zielwerte vorgeben zu lassen. Benchmarking ist ein dialogisches Instrument, das die Leistung aller Mitarbeiter aus den Funktionalbereichen beansprucht (Vgl. Rau, 1996, S. 63).2 Formen des BenchmarkingPrinzipiell knnen drei Formen des Benchmarking unterschieden werden, die im europischen Rahmen Verwendung finden (sieh Abb. 5).Das Benchmarking von Unternehmen ist bislang am weitesten verbreitet. Hier lernen Unternehmen voneinander, vergleichen Kennzahlen und tauschen sich ber die Objekte des Benchmarking aus.Beim Benchmarking von Sektoren wird die Leistungsfhigkeit einzelner Sektoren gegenbergestellt. Ziel ist es, von anderen Sektoren, die nach ausgewhlten Kriterien besser erscheinen, zu lernen.Das Benchmarking von Rahmenbedingungen gewinnt insbesondere vor dem Hinterg rund der Europischen Union eine neue Qualitt. Hierbei sollen in Zukunft z.B. politische, gesellschaftliche oder wirtschaftliche Rahmenbedingungen miteinander verglichen werden, so da ganze Lnder in die Lage versetzt werden voneinander zu lernen.Im folgenden wird das Benchmarking von Unternehmen nher beleuchtet, das wiederum in die beiden Klassen internes und externes Benchmarking aufgeteilt werden kann.2.1 internes BenchmarkingInternes Benchmarking stellt die einfachste Form des Benchmarking dar, da es keinerlei Beschrnkungen von auen zu beachten gibt. Beim internen Benchmarking versuchen Organisationen, von ihren eigenen Strukturen zu lernen. Es werden hnliche Ablufe untersucht und ber unterschiedliche Bereiche hinweg miteinander verglichen, um detaillierte Informationen ber das zur Verfgung stehende Leistungspotential zu erhalten.Beim internen Benchmarking richtet sich der Blick des Management nach innen. Es gilt aktuelle Arbeitsablufe und Praktiken objektiv zu erfassen und diese out-and-out(a) zu machen. Dadurch erhlt man die ntigen Details, um die Ressourcen gezielt auf diejenigen Aspekte zu konzentrieren, die einer nderung bedrfen.Hufig wird ein internes Benchmarking genutzt, um mit der Methode vertraut zu werden und dieses Wissen fr ein externes Benchmarking zu nutzen.2.1.1 Unternehmensbezogenes BenchmarkingInnerhalb eines Unternehmens ist es mglich hnliche Prozesse zu finden, die man vergleichen kann. Diese Prozesse sind gekennzeichnet durch technologische, organisatorische und personelle Einflsse und richten sich z.B. auf Zweigwerke oder Abteilungen.2.1.2 Konzernbezogenes BenchmarkingDiese Technik wird eingesetzt beim Vergleich von mehreren Werken oder Unternehmensteilen innerhalb eines Konzerns. Es kann hierdurch die beste Praxis innerhalb der Organisation identifiziert werden und ermglicht so die klare Identifikation von Schwachstellen. Die Vergleichsmglichkeiten sind im Gegensatz zum unternehmensbezogenen Benchmarking hher und stellen damit prinzi piell ein greres Potential dar. Konzernbezogenes Benchmarking eignet sich insbesondere fr eine objektive, fundierte Vorbereitung eines externen Benchmarking, fr eine Bestandsaufnahme und zur Verbesserung der Mitarbeiterkommunikation und -motivation.2.2 Externes BenchmarkingBenchmarking ist insbesondere eine Technik, um nach auen zu blicken, wobei ein Vergleich der Praktiken des eigenen Unternehmens mit unternehmensexternen Praktiken vorgenommen wird. Vergleich bedeutet, da eine Grundlinie der hnlichkeiten vorhanden sein mu. Diese hnlichkeiten mssen vor dem Benchmarking genau identifiziert werden. Erst dann sind ein gltiger Vergleich und die Identifizierung von Verbesserungschancen mglich (Vgl. Mertins, 1993). Eine grndliche Vorbereitung hilft, die beim externen Benchmarking hufig anzutreffenden Skeptiker produktiv werden zu lassen.2.2.1 Marktbezogenes BenchmarkingDie Konkurrenzanalyse ist als ein Instrument anzusehen, das Informationen ber die derzeitigen und zuknftigen Marktaktivit ten der Konkurrenz, deren Strken und Schwchen sowie deren mgliche Reaktionen auf Marktvernderungen liefert. Sie lt einen Vergleich mit Unternehmen zu, die die jeweiligen Unternehmensaktivitten in hervorragender Weise beherrschen, blickt jedoch nicht ber das Umfeld der direkten Konkurrenz hinaus. Mit dem Marktbezogenen Benchmarking ist es mglich von der Konkurrenz zu lernen, Verbesserungen einzuleiten und die Marktsituation objektiv im Auge zu behalten. Die externen Anste verhindern die Neigung zur Selbstzufriedenheit und Brokratisierung, die in allen Organisationen vorkommt und untersttzt so die berzeugung, da man immer zumindest ein wenig besser werden kann.Ein wesentlicher Unterschied zwischen einer reinen Konkurrenzanalyse und Benchmarking ist darin zu sehen, da ein unmittelbarer Informationsaustausch zwischen den Unternehmen etabliert und ein gegenseitiger Lernproze initiiert wird. Problematisch dabei ist in der Regel die zu berwindende Verschlossenheit von Konkurrenten unterein ander. Der sogenannte Benchmarking-Verhaltenskodex gibt hierzu zwar Verhaltensregeln, in der Praxis ist es jedoch meist schwer das Konstruktive Gesprch aufzunehmen.2.2.2 Branchenbezogenes BenchmarkingBranchenbezogenes Benchmarking geht ber den bloen Vergleich zweier Firmen hinaus und hat seinen Schwerpunkt in der Suche nach Trends. Es untersucht also die Leistungsfhigkeit einer bestimmten Funktion in branchenweiter Ausprgung. Dazu ist es notwendig, eine weit grere Gruppe von Unternehmen zu untersuchen, als dies beim konkurrenzbezogenen Benchmarking der determine ist. Branchenbezogenes Benchmarking sucht nach Trends statt nach Wettbewerbspositionen und dient zur Leistungsanalyse von Subsystemen. Die Grenzen zum konkurrenzbezogenen Benchmarking sind jedoch flieend, so da es kein klares Differenzierungsmerkmal gibt, wo eine zielgerichtete Studie aufhrt und die Trendforschung beginnt. Der wesentliche Vorteil des Branchenbezogenen Benchmarking gegenber dem marktbezogenen, ist darin zu s ehen, da keine unmittelbare Wettbewerbssituation besteht, da auf anderen Mrkten agiert wird. Somit gestaltet sich der Informationstransfer meist offener. Da die Unternehmen aus der gleichen Branche sind, gibt es jedoch beim Vergleich von Prozessen viele hnliche Merkmale, was fr ein erfolgreiches Benchmarking unumgnglich ist.2.2.3 Branchenunabhngiges BenchmarkingDer Schlssel zum langfristigen Erfolg im Wettbewerb ist nicht Gleichheit, sondern berlegenheit. Man mchte die beste Praxis, wie sie gegenwrtig existiert einholen und dann berholen. Deshalb richtet sich Benchmarking an den Besten aus. ber Branchen hinweg wird nach neuen, innovativen Praktiken, unabhngig von ihrer Quelle gesucht.Es geht darum, die besten Praktiken zu finden und zu nutzen, um die vorhandenen Praktiken innerhalb der eigenen Organisation innovativ zu verndern. Erfolg an externen Kriterien zu definieren, bedeutet eine Vorstellung von Bestleistung zu entwickeln und das Unternehmen auf ein neues Leistungsniveau zu he ben.Benchmarking am Klassenbesten beruht auf der berzeugung, da der Proze der Wertschpfung ber viele unterschiedliche Institutionen hinweg auf hnlichen Merkmalen beruht. Branchenunabhngiges Bechmarking ist zwingend Benchmarking von Geschftsprozessen. Voraussetzung ist daher eine klare Definition des zu vergleichenden Prozesses. Bereits whrend der Definitionsphase erkennt das Projektteam oft erste Schwachpunkte und kann Manahmen zur Verbesserung ableiten. Dies wirkt besonders motivierend auf die Beteiligten.2.3 Zusammenfassender VergleichIn der folgenden Abb.6 sind die Vor- und Nachteile der Arten des Unternehmens-Benchmarking zusammengefat (Vgl. Pieske, 1994).3 Die Phasen des BenchmarkingDer Benchmarking-Proze besteht prinzipiell aus fnf Kernphasen (Abb. 7). In der tglichen Benchmarking Praxis knnen diese Kernphasen um unternehmensspezifische Schwerpunkte erweitert werden.3.1 ZielsetzungAusgangspunkt des Benchmarking ist die Zielsetzungsphase. Hier wird der Fokus des Benchmarking-Pr ojekts festgelegt. Diese Phase ist fr den gesamten weiteren Proze von entscheidender Bedeutung, da Fehler oder mangelnde Sorgfalt das Ergebnis verflschen oder unbrauchbar machen. Es ist wichtig, das Management schon in dieser Phase einzubinden, da die sichtbare Untersttzung und die aktive Begleitung der Benchmarking Projekte durch das obere Management whrend aller Projektphasen ein Schlsselfaktor fr das Gelingen des Benchmarkings ist.Jedes Benchmarking-Projekt sollte einem strukturierten und formalisierten Ablauf folgen. Dadurch knnen Meilensteine vereinbart und Ergebnisse besser kontrolliert werden. Im brigen sind Reihenfolge und Inhalte der Prozeschritte fr die Beteiligten leichter nachzuvollziehen. Ausgangspunkt fr die Bestimmung der Benchmarking-Ziele sind die strategischen Ziele des Unternehmens. Diese Ziele werden bei der Festlegung der Benchmarking-Ziele mit eingearbeitet. Sind die Ziele des Benchmarking-Projektes festgelegt, gilt es, das Benchmarking-Objekt genau abzugrenzen und die Benchmarking-Art festzulegen.Der Zielfindungsproze, der am besten in Form eines Workshops erfolgt, kann mit Hilfe verschiedener Techniken untersttzt werden (sieh Abb. 8).Bei einem Zielworkshop sollten zwischen vier und zehn Personen beteiligt sein. Dies sind beim Benchmarking Vertreter des Management, die Proze-Eigner und zumindest ein Moderator. Zunchst schreibt jeder Teilnehmer die Ziele des Benchmarking-Projekts auf Moderationskarten, wobei darauf geachtet werden soll, da jede Karte nur ein Ziel enthlt, dieses mglichst prgnant und verstndlich formuliert und gut leserlich geschrieben ist. Fnf bis sieben Karten pro Teilnehmer sollten in der Regel ausreichen, da sonst zu viele Ziele generiert werden und eine Strukturierung schwerfllt.Nach einigen Minuten werden vom Moderator bereits die ersten Karten eingesammelt und gemischt, damit nicht klar erkenntlich ist, von wem welches Ziel formuliert wurde. Die eingesammelten Karten werden an einer Moderationstafel fr alle Teilnehme r sichtbar angepint. Dies dient nicht zuletzt dazu, da die Teilnehmer die Mglichkeit haben, in welche Richtung die anderen Teilnehmer denken und daraus Anregungen fr weitere Ziele bekommen. Nach etwa weiteren zehn Minuten werden die Teilnehmer sofern diese noch vereinzelt Ziele definieren gebeten, die letzten Ziele zu formulieren. Daraufhin werden auch diese Karten eingesammelt, gemischt und angepint.Nachdem alle Karten an der Tafel hngen, werden die Ziele vom Moderator langsam vorgelesen und die Teilnehmer werden gebeten, bei Unklarheiten sofort nachzufragen. In solch einem Falle wird der Kartenautor gebeten, kurz das Ziel zu beschreiben und es wird bei Bedarf im Team eine neue Formulierung entwickelt, die auf einer neuen Karte vom Moderator niedergeschrieben wird. Falls sich einzelne Ziele auf mehreren Karten wiederfinden, wird im Diskussionsproze die treffendste Zielformulierung ausgewhlt und die anderen Karten werden verworfen. Bevor eine Karte verworfen wird, mu jedoch in jed em Fall der Autor gefragt werden, ob er damit einverstanden ist. Nach dieser Runde sollten alle Ziele fr alle Beteiligten klar verstndlich sein und es kann mit der Strukturierung begonnen werden.Dazu wird zunchst das Oberziel identifiziert und an einer separaten Tafel befestigt. Gemeinsam mit den Teilnehmern wird nun eine Zielhierarchie erarbeitet, was in der Regel die schwierigste Phase des Zielworkshops darstellt. Hierbei wird den Teilnehmern nicht nur der Zusammenhang der verschiedenen Ziele deutlich, sondern auch deren Priorisierung (Vgl. Heisig, 1996).3.2 Interne AnalyseDie interne Analyse ist in den meisten Projekten die zeitintensivste Phase des Benchmarking. Nach einer Untersuchung von 3M werden hier ca. 45% der gesamten Projektlaufzeit bentigt (siehe Abb. 9). In dieser Phase wird die Grundlage fr das Verstndnis der eigenen Prozesse gelegt und bereits erste Strken und Verbesserungspotentiale aufgedeckt.3.2.1 Geschftsprozesse und ihre BeschreibungUnter einem Geschftsproze ist ein Ablauf zu verstehen, der im allgemeinen Sinn Objekte verarbeitet bzw. transformiert.Die Objekte, die zur Beschreibung der Geschftsprozesse eines Unternehmens verwendet werden sind Produkt, Auftrag und Ressource.Produkte sind die konkreten Gter und Dienstleistungen, die das Unternehmen an den Kunden liefert bzw. die Materialien, Rohstoffe und Dienstleistungen, die zur Produkt- bzw. Serviceerstellung verwendet werden (Zulieferprodukte).Auftrge veranlassen die Durchfhrung von Aktionen. Grere Unternehmen unterscheiden meistens mehrere Arten von Auftrgen, z.B. Werkstattauftrge, in denen Produkte aus mehreren Kundenauftrgen, gefertigt werden.Ressourcen sind alle Betriebsmittel, die fr die Produkt- oder Serviceherstellung bentigt werden. Dies knnen Maschinen, Werkzeuge und Transportmittel, aber auch Personen sein. Auch Informationen knnen Ressourcen sein, wenn man beispielsweise an Zeichnungen denkt, in denen angegeben ist, wie ein Produkt zusammengebaut werden soll.Diesen drei Objekt arten ist gemeinsam, da sich ihr Zustand durch die Bearbeitung ndert. Die Bearbeitung selbst wird durch die Aktion, die vierte Objektart dargestellt. Mit diesen vier Objektarten ist es mglich, Geschftsprozesse einheitlich zu beschreiben. Gerichtete Pfeile geben an, in welcher Reihenfolge Objekte verndert werden.3.2.2 Informationen, die aus einem Geschftsprozemodell gewonnenwerden knnenEin Geschftsprozemodell kann Ausgangspunkt fr weitere Untersuchungen, Vergleiche und Verbesserungen sein. Sinnvolle Fragestellungen betreffen die Effizienz der dargestellten Prozesse. Einige BeispieleWie oft werden Angebote berarbeitet?Gilt der dargestellte Ablauf fr alle Auftragsarten?Welche Durchlaufzeit ergibt sich fr die einzelnen Phasen eines Geschftsprozesses?Lassen sich Ablufe parallel durchfhren?Das Geschftsprozemodell ist daher Diskussionsgrundlage fr die Mitglieder des Benchmarking-Teams und trgt somit bereits zu mehr Transparenz bei.Den Abschlu dieser Phase bildet die Formulierung eines Frag ekatalogs. Diese Fragen beziehen sich auf das Gesamtprojekt und seine Einbindung, Teilaspekte bzw. Prozesse, Megren sowie die Praktikabilitt von im Rahmen der internen Analyse erkannten Optimierungsmglichkeiten des Benchmarking-Objekts.Die genaue Definition der Megren stellt dabei einen wesentlichen Schritt zur Gewhrleistung der Vergleichbarkeit dar. Die Benchmarking-Praxis zeigt allerdings, da gleiche Begriffe nicht nur in verschiedenen Unternehmen, sondern innerhalb eines Unternehmens hufig unterschiedlich verstanden werden. Der Fragebogen dient jedoch nicht nur zur Sammlung der Megren bei potentiellen Vergleichsunternehmen, sondern lt die angesprochenen Unternehmen auch erkennen, ob ein Benchmarking mit ihnen sinnvoll erscheint. Bei der Formulierung der Fragen sollte man darauf achten, daDie Fragen allgemeinverstndlich sindDie genaue Definition von Megren enthalten istDer Grund fr die Erhebung klar wird3.3 Die VergleichsphaseIn dieser Phase stehen die Auswahl von Vergleichsuntern ehmen und der Vergleich der Objekte, hier die Prozesse, im Vordergrund.Eine besondere Schwierigkeit dieser Phase ist es, Partner zu finden, die bereit sind, sich offen auszutauschen und damit in einen gegenseitigen Lernproze einzusteigen. Dies bedeutet, da der Partner einen vergleichbaren Proze bzw. Prozeabschnitt in seinem Unternehmen etabliert hat, bei diesem Proze zumindest in Teilaspekten besser ist und zur Teilnahme bereit ist.Der Auswahlproze des geeigneten Partners gliedert sich in eine Generierungs- und eine sich anschlieende Selektionsphase. Ziel der Generierungsphase ist es, mglichst viele unterschiedliche, potentielle Benchmarking-Partner zu finden, wozu prinzipiell verschiedene Vorgehensweisen geeignet sind (siehe Abb.12)In der Praxis bietet sich immer eine Kombination der unterschiedlichen Methoden an. So werden im Benchmarking-Team Vorschlge in Form eines Brainstormings erarbeitet, whrend parallel jedes Mitglied aufgefordert ist, ber die Literatur und ber Preistrger an relevante Informationen zu kommen.Aufgabe der Selektionsphase ist die Verdichtung der vorhandenen Informationen anhand von Bewertungskriterien. Die Selektionsphase sttzt sich auf die bereits beschriebenen Informationsquellen sowie auf Fragebogenaktionen und Telefoninterviews bei Benchmarking-Partnern. Zu den Bewertungskriterien gehren Gte, Qualitt und Vergleichbarkeit des Benchmarking-Objektes, die Professionalitt des potentiellen Vergleichpartners und eine Gewichtung in Abhngigkeit von der Zielsetzung. Weiter ist auch nach Aspekten wie Mglichkeit, Aufwand und Nutzen der Datenbeschaffung, der berprfbarkeit und Interpretationsmglichkeit der Daten sowie der daraus resultierenden Ergebnisse auszuwhlen. Wirtschaftliche Parameter und das Image des Partnerunternehmen sind von untergeordneter Bedeutung, sollten aber in der Bewertung bercksichtigt werden. Nach Abschlu des Selektionsprozesses werden in der Regel acht bis zwlf Unternehmen zur ersten Kontaktaufnahme ausgewhlt. Abschlieend fin det Priorisierung der ausgewhlten Vergleichsunternehmen statt. Ergebnis ist eine Auflistung der Auswahlpartner in Rangfolge. Sie dient der Reihenfolge der Ansprache von Vergleichsunternehmen.Die Herausforderung whrend der Durchfhrung des eigentlichen Vergleichs besteht darin, den Vergleichsproze wirklich zu verstehen, seine Strken zu erkennen und die Wirkungszusammenhnge zu begreifen. Hilfreich dabei sind Kennzahlen, die eine Gegenberstellung vereinfachen, eine Modellierung, die den Proze schnell verstndlich macht und ein Fragebogen an den Partner, anhand dessen er sich in die Problematik einarbeiten und fr den Austausch vorbereiten kann. Der persnliche Austausch von Informationen ist jedoch durch keine Kennzahlen oder Prozemodellierungen zu ersetzen. Gerade beim Zusammentreffen der Benchmarking-Partner, der am besten bei einem der beiden Partner und nicht auf neutralem Boden stattfinden sollte, werden Informationen ausgetauscht, die sich schwer in Worte fassen lassen. Hier findet d as eigentliche gegenseitige Lernen statt.Fr die Prozebewertung knnen die Leistungsparameter der Prozesse herangezogen werden. Diese mssen jedoch relativiert werden, da bei der Gegenberstellung von Zahlen stets die interne Situation und die Umwelt der Benchmarking-Partner bercksichtigt werden mssen, also die Voraussetzungen und Randbedingungen, unter denen die Ergebnisse erzielt wurden. Nicht die bloen Zahlen sind zu betrachten, sondern die Geschftsprozesse hinter den Zahlen mssen verstanden werden. Bezogen auf den eigenen Proze mu bestimmt werden, welche Praktiken geeignet sind, die gesetzten Ziele zu erreichen, und welche Mglichkeiten sich durch die bertragung ergeben. Dazu sind die Ursachen in den Leistungsunterschieden zu analysieren. Nur wenn die tatschlichen Grnde identifiziert werden, knnen ber den reinen Vergleich hinaus die unterschiedlichen Potentiale der verschiedenen Prozesse aufgedeckt, die Realisierbarkeit bewertet und zuknftige Entwicklungen vorausgesagt werden.Das Erg ebnis der Vergleichsphase ist die Kombination der bezglich der einzelnen Teilaspekte des Benchmarking-Objektes am besten erachteten Praktiken und Parameter. Man erhlt bezogen auf den untersuchten Geschftsproze die bei den verschiedenen Benchmarking-Partnern erkannten besten Praktiken, da kein einzelnes Unternehmen fr sich in Anspruch nehmen kann, in allen Belangen fhrend zu sein.3.4 Ableitung von ManahmenDie Aufgabe des Benchmarking-Teams besteht darin, die Resultate aus den Analysen dem Management, den F